THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

RIVERSIDE 


SYLLABUS 


A  COURSE  OF  LECTURES 


ECONOMIC  GEOLOGY 


•BY 


JOHN  C.  BRANNER,  PH.  D., 

Professor  of  Geology 
IN   LELAND  STANFORD  JUMOR  UNIVERSITY 


Third  Edition 


STANFORD  UNIVERSITY 

1911 


PREFACE. 

This  syllabus  is  intended  for  the  use  of  students  both  while  in  col- 
lege and  afterwards.  The  outlines  given  can  be  expanded  by  notes 
taken  from  the  lectures,  from  reading,  and  from  observation,  and  writ- 
ten out  on  the  opposite  pages  left  blank  for  that  purpose. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  a  student  of  economic  geology 
needs  to  learn  is  where  to  find  and  how  to  use  information  that  has 
been  published.  I  have,  therefore,  endeavored  to  give  references: 
first,  to  the  works  on  the  general  subject  of  economic  geology;  second, 
to  periodicals  in  which  articles  are  to  be  looked  for  upon  various 
economic  subjects;  third,  to  papers  and  reports  upon  special  subjects. 

The  general  works  and  periodicals  are  listed  on  pages  IV  and  VI, 
and  the  references  to  special  topics  are  given  as  footnotes  in  the  body 
of  the  syllabus  under  each  topic.  The  list  of  references  is  not  com- 
plete in  any  case,  but  it  is  usually  sufficient  to  put  the  student  in  the 
way  of  finding  other  titles. 

By  posting  titles  in  the  syllabus  as  the  articles  appear  the  student 
can  add  greatly  to  its  usefulness,  and  in  this  way  keep  his  own  copy 
up  to  date. 

More  space  is  given  to  the  economic  geology  of  the  United  States 
than  to  that  of  foreign  countries.  Some  of  the  subjects  are  necessarily 
but  briefly  treated. 

For  the  sake  of  uniformity,  the  tons  mentioned  in  this  syllabus  have 
all  been  reduced  to  short  tons  of  2,000  pounds. 

The  compositions  of  minerals,  unless  otherwise  stated,  are  the 
theoretic  ones,  and  are  taken  from  Dana's  System  of  Mineralogy. 

The  charts  showing  the  production,  imports,  and  prices,  were  made 
chiefly  from  the  data  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey.  Space 
has  been  left  on  the  right  side  of  these  diagrams  so  that  the  lines  can 
be  continued  for  several  years. 

A  few  blank  pages  are  left  at  the  back  of  the  book  for  the  addition 

of  notes  and  memoranda  on  special  subjects  not  treated  in  the  syllabus. 

The   first  two  editions  of  this   syllabus  were  prepared  with  the  help 

of  Professor  J.  F.  Xewsom.     Though  he  is  not  responsible  for  this  third 

edition,   I   have   had   his  cordial   cooperation   in   its   preparation. 

JOHN   C.   BRANXER. 


GENERAL   WORKS    ON    ECONOMIC    GEOLOGY. 

Books  and  articles  upon  special  subjects  are  mentioned  under  each  topic  in  the  body 
of  the  syllabus. 

J.  D.  Whitney.— The  metallic  wealth  of  the  United  States.  Philadelphia,  1854;  510 
pages.  Scarce. 

B.  von  Cotta. — A  treatise  on  ore  deposits.  Translated  from  the  German  by  F.  Prime, 
Jr.  New  York,  1870;  575  pages.  Scarce. 

David    Page. — Economic    geology.        London,    1874;    336    pages. 

Albert  Williams,  Jr. — Popular  fallacies  regarding  precious  metal  ore  deposits.  Fourth 
ami.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  257-271.  Washington,  1884. 

S.    G.    Williams.— Applied   geology.       New   York,    1886;    386   pages. 

E.  Fuchs    et    L.    de    Launay. — Traite    des    gites    mineraux    et    metalliferes.        2    vols. 

Paris,    1893.       (Contains   many   valuable   references.) 

George    Moreau. — Etude    industrielle    des   gites    metalliffires.       Paris,    1894;    453    pages. 
R.    S.    Tarr. — Economic   geology   of   the   United   States.       New    York,    1894;    509   pages. 

J.  F.  Kemp. — The  ore  deposits  of  the  United  States.  Fourth  edition,  New  York, 
1901;  484  pages. 

F.  Posepny. — The    genesis    of    ore    deposits.       Transactions    of   the    American    Institute 

of   Mining   Engineers,    1893,    XXIII,    197-369;   also   a   separate   publication   of   the 
Institute.       New   York,    1895. 

J.  .A.  Phillips  and  Henry  Louis. — A  treatise  on  ore  deposits.  London,  1884;  651 
pages.  Second  edition  rewritten,  etc.  By  Henry  Louis,  London,  1896;  943 
pages. 

L.  de  Launay. — Contribution  a  1'etude  des  gites  metalliferes.  Ann.  des  Mines.  9me 
ser.  XII,  119-228.  Paris,  1897. 

G.  P.    Merrill. — The    non-metallic    minerals;     their    occurrence    and    uses.        XI,    414. 

New   York,    1904. 

A.   W.    Stelzner. — Die  Erzlagerstatten.       Leipzig,    1904. 

J.   E.   Spurr.— Geology  applied  to  mining.       8°,   ill.   XIV,    326.       New   York,    1904. 

R.  Beck. — The  nature  of  ore  deposits.  Translated  by  W.  H.  Weed,  2  vols.  New 
York,  1905. 

James   Park.— A   text-book   of   mining   geology.       IX  +  219.       Philadelphia,    1906. 
A.    Ries. — -Economic   geology.       New   York,    1910. 


Mineral  Statistics. 

The  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States.  Published  annually  since  1883  by  the 
U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  From  1893  to  1900  these  reports  were  included  in 
the  annual  reports  of  the  Director  of  the  Survey. 

The  Mineral  Industry.  Edited  by  R.  P.  Rothwell  and  published  at  New  York  annually 
from  1893  to  1900.  Prior  to  1893  the  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  pub- 
lished annually  statistics  of  the  mineral  industries  of  the  United  States.  From 
1901  to  date  by  various  editors. 

The  Director  of  the  Mint  publishes  an  annual  report  upon  the  production  of  the 
precious  metals  in  the  United  States. 

The  census   reports,   published   every   ten   years  by   the    U.    S.    Government. 


PERIODICAL    PUBLICATIONS 

containing  articles  on  economic  geology. 

1.  Annales  des   Mines.       Published   at   Paris  since    1/94. 

2.  American   Journal   of   Science.       Published   monthly   at   New    Haven,    Conn.,    since 

1819. 

3.  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  Geologique  de  France.      Paris,  France;  one  volume  annually 

since   1830. 

4.  Neues  Jahrbuch  fur  Mineralogie,  Geologic  und  Palaeontologie.      Stuttgart,  annual- 

ly  since    1830. 

5.  Berg  und   Huttenminnische    Zeitung.       Leipzig   since    1842. 

6.  Quarterly  Journal    of   the    Geological    Society   of   London.       One    volume   annually 

since    1845. 

7.  Geological    Magazine.        Begun    in    1858    as    The    Geologist;    continued    since    1865 

as   The   Geological    Magazine.       Published   monthly   at   London,    England. 

The   Mining  Journal    (weekly).     London   since    1834. 

Engineering   and    Mining   Journal.       Published    weekly   at    New    York    since    1866. 

Mining  and   Scientific  Press,   San  Francisco,   Cal.       Weekly  since   1860. 

11.  Transactions   of   the   American    Institute   of   Mining   Engineers.       New   York;    one 

volume  annually  since   1870. 

12.  School  of  Mines  Quarterly.      Published  quarterly  at  New   York  since    1879. 

Published    quarterly    by    the    Massachusetts    Instit 
rom    January,     1887,    to    June,     1908,    when    it    was    sus- 


13.    Technology    Quarterly.       Published    quarterly    by    the    Massachusetts    Institute    of 
Technology,    Boston,    fro 


pended. 

14.  American    Geologist.       Published    monthly   at    Minneapolis,    Minn.,    from    January, 

1888,  until  December,  1905,  when  it  was  merged  into  Economic  Geology. 

15.  Bulletin    of    the    Geological    Society    of    America.        One    volume    annually    since 

1890. 

16.  Transactions  of  the  Institution  of  Mining  and   Metallurgy.       London,   since    1891. 

17.  Journal    of    Geology.        Published    semi-quarterly    at    the    University    of    Chicago 

since    1893. 

18.  Zeitschrift   fur   Praktische   Geologic.       Berlin,   Germany,    since    1893. 

19.  Annales  des  Mines  de  Belgique.       Brussels,  since   1896. 

20.  Monographs,     bulletins     and     annual     reports     of     the     United     States     Geological 

Survey,-  Washington,    since    1880. 

21.  Geologisches   Centralblatt.       Berlin,   Germany,   since  January    1,    1901. 

22.  Economic   Geology.       Semi-quarterly   since   October-November,    1905. 


REFERENCES    TO    WORKS. 
ON   MINING  LAW 

'Curtis  H.    Lindley. — A    treatise   on   the    American   law    relating   to   mines   and   mineral 
lands.      2   vols.      2d    ed.      San    Francisco,    1903. 

2D.    M.    Barringer   and    J.    S.    Adams. — The   law   of   mines    and   mining   in    the   United 
States.      Boston,    1897. 

3E.  P.  Clark. — Mining  law.     School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  V,  242-258.     New  York,   1884. 

4R.     W.     Raymond. — Historical    sketch    of    mining    law.       Mineral     Resources    of    the 
United    States,    1883-84.       988-1004.       Washington,    1885. 

5R.    W.    Raymond.— The   law   of   the   apex.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng.,   XII,    387- 
444,  677-688.     New  York,   1884. 

"Mining    laws.      Tenth    Census,    XIV.      Washington,     1885. 

7A.    H.    Ricketts. — Dissertation    upon    American    mining    law.      Eleventh    ann.    rep.    of 
the    State    Mineralogist    (of    California),     1891-92,    521-574.      Sacramento,    1893. 

"Henry    N.    Copp. — American   mining   code. 

»W.    D.   McPherson   and  J.    M.   Clark. — The  law   of  mines   in   Canada.     Toronto,    1898. 

"Mining  code  of  the  Mexican  Republic.       Second  ed.       Mexico,    1893. 

"Ley  minera  y  ley  de  imposto  a  la  mineria  con   sus  respectivos  reglamentos.     Mexico, 
1894. 

12R.   E.   Chism. — A  synopsis  of  the   mining  laws  of  Mexico.     Trans.   Amer.   Inst.    Min. 
Eng.,    XXXI,    3-54.      New    York,    1902. 

"Abstracts    of    current    mining    decisions.      School    of    Mines    Quarterly,    XXIII,    374. 
New    York,    1902. 

14C.  H.   Shamel. — The  American  law  relating  to  minerals.     School  of  Mines  Quarterly, 
XXVII,    1-27.      New   York,    1905. 

15G.     W.     Riter. — Weak    points     in     the     federal    law     in     relation     to     mineral     lands. 
Engineering  and    Mining  Journal,   LXXXIII,    184-185.      New   York,    1907. 

18A.    H.    Ricketts. — Short    talks    on    mining    law.      Engineering    and    Mining    Journal, 
LXXXVI,    81,    117,    168,    212,    281,    363,    etc.      New    York,    1908. 


Subdivisions   of   the   Geological    Column,   or    Order    of   the    Stratified 
Formations  of  North  America. 


Characteristic   life 

Period 

System1 

Series1 

Man 

Psychozoic 

0 
.«•£ 

Quaternary 

Recent 
Pleistocene 

Mammals 

Cenozo 
Kainozt 

Tertiary 

Pliocene 
Miocene 
Oligocene 
Eocene 

Cretaceous 

Upper 

!    Reptiles 

.« 

Jurassic 

M^L 
Lower 

Triassic 

Upper 
Middle 
Lower 

Permian 

Acrogens 
Amphibians 

Carboniferous 

Coal   Measures 
or    Pennsylvanian 

Lower    Carboniferous 
or    Mississippian 

Fishes 

Paleozoic 

Devonian 

Catskill 
Chemung 
Hamilton 
Corniferous 
Oriskanv 
Lower   Helderberg 

Silurian    or    Upper 
Silurian 

Salina 
Niagara 

Invertebrate* 

in       Ordovician    or 
Lower  Silurian 

Trenton 
Canadian 

Cambrian 

Potsdam 
Acadian 
Georgian 

• 

Eozoic 

Algonkian 

Keweenawan 
Huronian 

Azoic 

Archean 

Keewatin 
Laurentian 

JG.  K.  Gilbert.      American  Geologist,  XXXIII,   141.      Minneapolis,   1904. 


Parti 

The  Nature,  Origin,  Forms,  Etc.  of 
Economic  Geologic  Deposits 

ECONOMIC   GEOLOGY. 


Introductory. 

What  is  meant  by  economic  geology ;  geology  in  its  relations  to  arts 
and  industries. 

Necessity  of  understanding  pure  geology  before  attempting  to  apply  it. 

Geological  products  are  used,  directly  or  indirectly,  in  every  branch 
of  human  industry.  The  importance  and  prosperity  of  a  nation  depend 
largely  upon  its  geological  products. 

Geology  in  its  relations  to  agriculture.1 

Soils  are  geological  products. 

The  soil  belts  of  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Indiana,  Missouri  are  residual 
soils,  varying  with  the  rocks  from  which  they  are  derived. 

Soils  transported  by  water,  by  ice  and  by  wind;  the  drift  area  of  the 

United  States. 
Fertilizers. 

Green-sand  marls  of  New  Jersey. 

Apatite  deposits  of  Canada. 

Phosphates  of   South   Carolina,   Florida,   Tennessee,   and  Arkansas. 

Land-plaster,  or  gypsum,  of  New  York,  Michigan,  etc. 

Kainit  from  Stassfurt,  Germany. 

Geology  and  forests.2 
Geology  and  manufacturing  industries. 

The  great  industries  of  nations  and  states  are  often  determined  by 
local  geology.  Cities  and  towns  have  often  had  their  locations  determined 
by  the  proximity  to  some  mineral  or  mineral-bearing  formation;  others 
owe  their  importance  to  such  proximity. 

Relations  of  England's  wealth  and  power  to  the  mineral  resources  of 
that  country. 

The  wealth  and  power  of  the  United  States  have  increased  in  pro- 
portion to  the  development  of  the  country's  mineral  resources. 

1J.  E.  Marr. — Agricultural  geology.  .  XI,  318.  London,  1903. 
A.  Lonay. — L'agronometrie  specialement  dans  ses  rapports  avec  la  geologic.  Bui. 

Soc.  Beige  de  Geologic.  XVI,  40-46.  Bruxelles,  1902. 
*A.  Hollick. — The  relation  between  forestry  and  geology  in  New  Jersey.  American 

Naturalist,   XXXIII,   1-14;    109-116,    1899. 


4  ECONOMIC    GEOLOGY. 

Note  the  commercial  importance  of  various  states,  and  how  each  owes 
its  importance  to  some  geological  product,  omitting  purely  mining  and 
purely  manufacturing  states : 

Alabama :  iron,  coal. 

California:  gold,  quicksilver,  petroleum. 

Indiana :  natural  gas,  building  stone,  glass,  coal. 

Maine :  granite. 

Michigan :  copper,  iron  ore. 

Missouri:  zinc,  lead,  iron  ore,  glass-sands,  fire-clays. 

New  Jersey :  marls,  clays,  zinc. 

Ohio :  coal,  building  stone,  natural  gas,  petroleum. 

Pennsylvania :  iron,  coal,  petroleum. 

Geology  and  art.3 

The  local  beginnings  of  ceramic  art  were  made  possible  by  the  existence 
of  available  clays.  The  great  art  manufacturing  industries  of  Stafford- 
shire, England,  and  of  Limoges,  France,  sprang  up  in  those  places  partly 
because  of  the  presence  or  proximity  of  the  necessary  clays. 

The  influence  of  the  clays  of  New  Jersey  and  Ohio  upon  the  pottery 
industries. 

Influence  of  Parian  and  Carrara  marbles  on  sculpture. 

How  the  geology  of  Holland  has  affected  the  landscape  paintings  of 
that  country. 

Influence  of  building  stones  and  brick-clays  on  architecture.  Examples 
are  the  brownstones  of  New  Jersey  and  Connecticut;  the  limestones  of 
Montreal;  the  brick-clays  of  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  and  Milwaukee. 

Geology  in  relation  to  engineering.4 

Geology  and  roads. 

Character  of  roads  affected  by  local  geology  or  by  the  presence  or 
absence  of  good  road-making  materials. 

Limestone  "road-metal"  of  Southern  France. 

Drift  gravels  of  the  glaciated  portion  of  the  United  States.  The 
jaspers  of  San  Francisco  and  the  Coast  Ranges;  the  cherts  of  south- 
western Missouri;  the  auriferous  gravels  of  the  Sacramento  Valley. 

Geology  and  railways. 

The  location  of  railways  is  often  determined  by  the  presence  of  miner- 
als that  promise  business. 

Geologists  employed  by  railways. 
Geology  and  migration. 

•Hugh  Miller.— Landscape  geology.      Trans.  Edin.   Geol.   Soc.,   1892,  VI,   pt.   Ill,    129. 

Also   London,    1891. 

J.  E.  Marr. — The  scientific  study  of  scenery.      London,   1900. 
C.    D'Orbigny  et  A.    Gente.— Geologic   appliquee   aux   arts   et   a    1'agriculture.       8°33S 

pp.       Paris,    1851. 

4E.  Niviot.— Geologic  appliquee  a  1'art  de  1'enginieur.      2  vols.      Paris,  1887-1889. 


ECONOMIC   GEOLOGY. 


THE   CONSTRUCTION    OF    MAPS   AND    SECTIONS    FOR 
GEOLOGIC  PURPOSES. 

When  a  geological  deposit  or  formation  has  economic  value,  its  precise 
location  and  distribution  become  important;  these  can  be  shown  by  maps 
and  sections. 

Advantages  of  maps  over  verbal  descriptions. 

Maps  may  show  horizontal  location  alone,  or  both  horizontal  and  ver- 
tical position. 

Importance  of  instrumental  work.1 

Horizontal  location  determining  ownership,  extent,  and  value. 

How  maps  are  made.2 
Regional  maps ;  local  maps. 
Every  geologic  map  is  based  upon   some  kind  of  topographic  map,  and 

if  a  topographic  map  is  not  available  one  must  be  made. 
Knowledge  of  map-making  indispensable  to  geologists. 
Triangulation. 
By  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey ;  U.  S.  Engineers ;  U.  S.  Geological 

Survey;  Lake  Survey;  special  surveys. 

Chaining:  tacheometer,  telemeter  or  stadia  measurements.* 
Plane-table  surveying.* 
Importance  and   advantages   of  finishing  the   map   on   the   ground  when 

possible. 
Photo-topography.5 

'B.    S.    Lyman. — Need   of   instrumental    surveying   in   practical    geology.      Transactions 

American   Institute   of   Mining   Engineers,    XL,   636-643.       New   York,    1910. 
'Archibald  Geikie.— Outlines  of  field-geology.      London  and  New  York,  4th  ed.,    1891. 

Henry  Gannett. — A  manual  of  topographic  methods.  Monograph  XXII,  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1893. 

Henry  Gannett. — The  aims  and  methods  of  cartography.  Maryland  Geological  Sur- 
vey, II,  pt.  Ill,  245-335.  Baltimore,  1898. 

C.   W.   Hayes.— Handbook   for  field  geologists.       New.  York,    1909. 
8R.  H.   Richards. — A  new  prismatic  stadia.      Jour.  Assoc.  of  Eng.   Socs.,   XIII.    1894. ' 

J.  B.  Johnson. — Topographical  surveying  by  means  of  transit  and  stadia  New 
York,  1885. 

A.  Winslow. — The  theory  of  stadia  measurements,  accompanied  by  tables  of  hori- 
zontal distances  and  differences  of  level  for  the  reduction  of  stadia  field 
observations.  First  report  of  progress  in  the  anthracite  coal  region.  Second 
Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania,  AA,  325-344.  Harrisburg,  1883. 

Arthur  Winslow. — Stadia  surveying.  Van  Nostrand's  Science  Series,  no.  77;  New 
York. 

N.    Kennedy. — Surveying   with    the   tacheometer.       VI  +  104.       London,    1900. 

*E.  Hergesheimer. — A  treatise  on  the  plane-table  and  its  use  in  topographic  surveying. 
Appendix  XIII,  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  Report  for  1880.  Wash- 
ington, 1882. 

•J.  A.  Flemer.— Phototopographic  methods  and  instruments.  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geo- 
detic Survey  Report  for  1897,  pp.  619-735.  Washington,  1898. 


8  ECONOMIC    GEOLOGY. 

Maps  made  by  reconnoissance  methods." 

Odometers;    pacing;    pedometers. 
Ordnance  maps  of  England. 

Maps  made  by  the  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey ;    by  the  U.  S.  Geo- 
logical Survey ;  by  the  U.  S.  Land  Office. 
Use  of  township  sheets;  their  strong  and  weak  points. 
Spanish  grants  and  irregular  surveys. 

Elevations. 

Vertical  location  upon  maps  shown  by  shading,  hachures,  or  contours. 
Importance   of   elevations   in   obtaining  water   supplies ;    artesian   waters ; 

mine  draining;  prospecting  for  bedded  deposits. 
Value  of  a  common  datum  for  elevations ;  advantages  of  mean  tide  level 

as  a  datum. 

Methods   of   determining   elevations. 
Precise  levels  ;7  ordinary  spirit  levels ;  hand  levels. 
Vertical  arc;  use  of  slide-rule  in  connection  with  arc  observations. 
Mercurial  barometer;  aneroid  barometer.8 
Limitations  of  each  method. 
The  accuracy   should  depend   upon  the   demands  placed  or  likely  to   be 

placed  upon  the  work. 

How  to  mount  and  fold  maps  for  use  in  the  field. 
Dissect  to  convenient  size,  and  back  with  cloth. 

Relief  maps.9 
Especially  advantageous  for  showing  structural  features. 

•Arthur  Winslqw. — The  construction  of  topographic  maps  by  reconnoissance  methods. 
Transactions  Arkansas  Society  of  Engineers,  Architects,  and  Surveyors;  Vol. 
II,  75-83.  1888. 

Bailey  Willis. — Graphic  field  notes  for  areal  geology.  Bui.  Geol.  Soc.  Amer.  II, 
177-188.  Rochester,  1891. 

H.  M.  Wilson. — Topographic  surveying,  including  geographic  exploratory  and  mili- 
tary mapping.  884  pp.  New  York,  1900. 

E.  C.    Eckel. — The    preparation   of   a    geologic   map.       Journal    of   Geology    X,    59-66. 

Chicago,    1902. 

*O.  H.  Tittmann. — Precise  levels.      Report  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  for  1879, 

Appendix    XV.       Washington,    1881. 
Chas.    B.    Schott. — Results   of  the  transcontinental   line   of  geodetic   spirit-leveling   near 

the    parallel    of    39°.       Report    U.    S.    Coast    and    Geodetic    Survey    for    1882, 

Appendix    XI.       Washington,    1883. 
•G.    K.    Gilbert. — A    new    method    of   measuring   heights   by    means    of    the   barometer. 

Second  annual  report  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  for  405-562.      Washington,   1882. 
Edward  Whymper. — How   to  use  the  aneroid  barometer.       New   York,    1891. 
Henry    Gannett. — The    measurement    of    altitudes.       Mazama    I,    243-264.       Portland. 

Oregon,    1897. 

F.  J.    B.    Cordeiro. — The   barometric    determination    of    heights.       London,    1898. 

•J.  H.  Harden  and  E.  B.  Harden. — The  construction  of  maps  in  relief.  Transac- 
tions American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  XVI,  279-301.  New  York,  1888. 

Cosmos  Mindeleff. — Topographic  models.  National  Geographic  Magazine  I,  254-268. 
Washington,  1889. 

Marcus  Baker.— Relief  maps.  Bui.  Phil.  Soc.  of  Washington,  XII,  349-368.  Wash- 
ington, 1894. 


9 


10 


ECONOMIC    GEOLOGY. 


Data  required :  horizontal,  vertical,  geological. 
Various  methods  of  making  relief  maps. 

Mine  models."' 
Sections. 

How  geology  is  put  on  maps  and  sections. 

Relation  of  sections  to  the  map. 

The  importance  of  the  proper  location  of  structural  features  illustrated  by 

folds  in  the  coal  regions. 
The  cost  of  errors. 
The  difference  between  general  geologic  maps  and  those  used  in  connection 

with  mining  operations. 
The  uses  and  advantages  of  an  engineer's  training  in  geological   work. 

He  can  make  his  own  maps. 


10E.    D.    North. — Glass   mine  models. 
New   York,  January,    1910. 


Bui.    Amer.    Inst.    Min.   Engs.       No.    37, 


.--'     ..--'I    /    , 
.  1 .'    / 


Fig.   1. — North-south  sections,  ten  miles  apart,  across  an  anticline  in  Oklahoma, 
heavy  black  lines  represent  coal  beds;  the  shaded  areas  represent  shales 
and  the  dotted  areas  sandstones.      (Drake.) 


The 


11 


12  ECONOMIC    GEOLOGY. 


GEOLOGICAL   SURVEYS. 

Immediate  objects. 

Determining  geological  formations  and  structure. 
Exhibiting  formations  and  structure  on  maps  and  sections. 

Ultimate  objects. 

Turning  maps  and   sections   to   account. 

Knowledge  of  former  physical  conditions ;  the  original  conditions  often 
determine  the  contents  of  the  rocks  and  their  present  values. 

Methods  used. 
How  the  rocks  are  grouped;  the  use  of  groups  when  valuable  deposits 

are  confined  to  certain  ones. 
How  groups  or  divisions  are  put  on  maps. 
Method  with  ordinary  maps. 

Method  with  township  sheets ;    inaccuracies  of  township   sheets. 
Method  with  special  topographic  maps. 

Method  with  maps  in  construction ;  the  importance  of  exact  locations. 
Relations  of  map  scale  to  the  required  geologic  details. 
Field  notes  should  be  made  on  the  spot. 
Field  work  is  usually  best   done   with   reference  to   the   season   and  the 

weather. 
Office  work  can  be  done  during  inclement  weather. 

Geologic  specimens. 
Importance  of  freshness  of  the  specimens  collected :  convenient  shapes  and 

sizes. 
Labeling  should  be  done  on  the  spot;  wrapping;  boxing. 

GEOLOGICAL    SURVEYS    AND    THEIR   PUBLICATIONS. 

Necessity  of  knowing  what  geologic  work  has  been  done  in  a  region 
to  be  investigated  and  where  the  results  have  been  published. 

European  Surveys.1 
The  geological  map  of  Europe. 

'Sir    A.    Geikie.— (Geological    survey    of    Great    Britain.)        Geological    Magazine,    V, 

306-318,  358-366.      London,   1898. 
William    Topley. — The    report    upon    national    geological    surveys:    Europe.       British 

Association   Report   for    1884,   pp.   221-240.       London,    1885. 
E.    A.    Schneider. — Cost   of   European    geological    surveys.       Engineering   and   Mining 

Journal,  LXII,  342,  366,  392.      New  York,    1896. 


14  ECONOMIC    GEOLOGY. 

Geological  Surveys  by  the  Federal  Government." 

Exploring  expeditions  with  geological  attaches. 

Wheeler  survey  by  U.  S.  Engineers  under  the  War  Department. 

Hayden  survey,  under  the  Department  of  the  Interior. 

Powell  survey,  under  the  Department  of  the  Interior. 

King  survey  of  the  40th  parallel  under  the  War  Department. 

Present  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  under  the  Department  of  the  Interior. 

Its  duties  as  denned  are  to  make  a  geologic  map  of  the  public  domain. 

Scope  of  the  work  of  the  federal  survey. 
Paleontology,     economic     geology,     topography,     mineral     statistics, 

hydrography,  irrigation,  chemistry,  physics,  engraving. 
Publications.3 

Annual  reports  since  1880  (quartos  until  1905-6). 

Monographs   (quartos). 

Professional  papers    (quartos). 

Bulletins  (octavos). 

Mineral  resources  (octavos)  from  1882  to  date  (from  1895  to  1900  they 
form  part  of  the  annual  reports). 

Folios  of  the  geologic  atlas  of  the  United  States  show  topography  and 
geology,  with  brief  descriptions. 

Topographic  sheets. 

How  the  U.  S.  Survey  reports  may  be  obtained. 

The  Bureau  of  Mines  established  by  Congress  in  1910. 

Its  functions  are  the  investigations  of  mine  accidents  and  fuels. 

State  geological  surveys. 

State  surveys  usually  established  for  economic  purposes. 

Character  of  the  work  and  success  often  depend  upon  the  state  geologist. 

Methods  of  selecting  state  geologists :  appointment,  election. 
Methods  and  results  of  typical  state  surveys. 

The  New  York  survey. 

'Surveys  of  the  Territories.  House  miscellaneous  document  No  5.  45th  Congress, 
3rd  session. 

J.  W.  Powell. — On  the  organization  of  scientific  work  of  the  general  government. 
Washington,  1886. 

Testimony  before  the  Joint  Commission.  Senate  mis.  doc.  82,  49th  Congress,  1st 
session.  Washington,  1886. 

J.  C.  Branner. — Relations  of  state  and  national  geological  surveys.  Proceedings 
American  Association  Advancement  of  Science,  XXXIX,  219-237.  Salem,  1891. 

S.  F.  Emmons. — The  geology  of  government  explorations.  Presidential  ad.,  Geo- 
logical Society.  Washington,  1896. 

H.   H.    Stock.— Official   geology.       The    Mining    Bulletin,    II,    38-52.       (State    College, 

Pa.)       1896. 

•In  December,  1910,  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  had  published:  30  annual  reports 
(73  volumes),  50  monographs,  68  professional  papers,  432  bulletins,  170  folios, 
and  19  volumes  of  mineral  resources,  besides  a  large  number  of  topographic 
sheets. 


15 


16  ECONOMIC   GEOLOGY. 

Pennsylvania  survey. 

Arkansas  survey. 

Board  of  commissioners  or  control. 
Relations  and  co-operation  of  national  and  state  surveys. 

Aid  of  state  surveys  by  the  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  and  by  the 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 
Cost  of  state  surveys. 
Appropriations  by  legislatures. 
Special  provisions  for  surveys. 

Private  geological  surveys. 
By  scientific  societies  and  exploring  parties. 
By  private  corporations. 
Northern  Pacific  Railway,  coal  companies,  and  other  mining  companies, 

for  business  purposes. 
By  individuals. 


17 


18  ECONOMIC    GEOLOGIC    DEPOSITS. 


NATURE,    ORIGIN    AND    CLASSIFICATION    OF    ECONOMIC 
GEOLOGIC  DEPOSITS. 

The  nature  of  geologic  products. 
Great  variation  in  characters  in  single  classes. 

Structural  materials :   stone,  glass-sand,   slates,   asphaltum. 

Fuels:  coal,  lignite,  peat,  oil,  gas. 

Ores  of  base  metals :  iron,  zinc,  lead,  tin,  copper. 

Earthy  minerals :  clays,  kaolins,  bauxites,  fertilizers,  chalks. 

The  origin  of  geologic  deposits. 

Geological  deposits  of  economic  value  originate  in  ways  as  widely  dif- 
ferent as  the  deposits  themselves. 

They  may  be  classified  according  to  the  processes  of  their  formation 
as  (1)  mechanical;  (2)  chemical;  (3)  igneous;  (4)  organic. 

The  following  are  illustrations : 
I.  Mechanical  deposits:  some  building  stones,  grindstones,  marls,  clays, 

sands,  some  limestones,  and  marbles. 
Mechanical  concentrations :  placer  deposits  of  gold,  diamonds,  and 

tin. 
II.  Examples  of  chemical  deposits  from  concentration  are  salt  gypsum. 

Deposits  from  solution  on  exposure  are  stalactites,  "onyx"  marble, 

and  travertine. 

Deposits  from  solution  on  relief  of  pressure  or  lowering  of  tem- 
perature, or  both,  are  many  important  ore  deposits. 

III.  Poured  out  as  igneous  rocks. 

Crystallized  out  in  rock  masses  are  feldspar,  rutile,  diamonds,  emery, 
and  certain  precious  stones. 

IV.  Examples  of  organic  deposits  from  plants  are  peat  and  coal;   from 

animals :  some  limestones. 
Distillations    from    organic    deposits:    petroleum,     gas,     asphaltum, 

ozokerite. 

Any  of  these  deposits  are  liable  to  be  changed  by  metamorphism,  and 
many  deposits  owe  their  value  to  their  having  passed  through  such 
changes. 

Following  are  examples  of  deposits  that  owe  their  value  to  these 
changes. 

Some  marbles  are  metamorphosed  limestones. 
Slates  are  metamorphosed  clay  shales. 
Anthracite  is  changed  coal. 
Coal  is  changed  peat. 
Kaolin  is  decayed  feldspar. 

Relation  of  the  method  of  its  formation  to  the  form  and  distribution  of  a 
deposit  of  economic  value. 


19 


20 


ECONOMIC    GEOLOGIC    DEPOSITS. 


The  classification  of  economic  geologic  deposits. 

The   classification   of  geologic   deposits    is  a   matter   of  convenience, 
and  the  basis  of  the  classification  must  be  determined  by  the  purposes  for 
which  it  is  intended.      Classification  may  be  based  upon  : 
I.  Geographic  distribution. 

National,  state,  and  local  reports. 
II.  The  minerals  contained. 

This  would  group  together  all  similar  minerals,  regardless  of  their 
origin,  geographic,  or  geologic  position.  Example  :  hydrocarbons 
of  different  origins,  various  compositions  and  occurrences. 

III.  Geologic  distribution,  or  that  of  the  rocks  containing  the  minerals. 

Relations  of  such  grouping  to  historical  geology. 

IV.  Shape  of  the  deposits. 

Classification  of  ore  deposits  by  different  writers. 
Von  Cotta's  classification.1 

1.  Regular  deposits. 

2.  Irregular  deposits. 
Whitney's  classification.2 

1.  Superficial. 

f  Constituting  the  mass  of  a  bed. 

2.  Stratified.        .<  Disseminated  through  sedimentary  beds. 

(^  Deposited  from  solution,  metamorphosed. 

f  Eruptive  masses. 
|  Disseminated  in  eruptive  rocks. 
J  Stockwork  deposits. 
I  Contact  deposits. 
Fahlbands. 


3.  Unstratified. 


Irregular 


Regular 


f  Segregated  veins. 
v  Gash  veins. 
Fissure  veins. 


Penrose  follows  Whitney's  classification,  with  the  following  modi- 
fications : 

C  Placers. 

f  Stream  and  littoral.     J.  Stream  tin. 
Superficial  J  (_  Magnetic  iron  sands 

deposits.  1    Bog  and  lake  deposits. 
(^  Residuary  deposits. 

(  Eruptive  and  disseminated  in  eruptives. 

Irregular  I  Impregnations, 

unstratified  ^  Reticulated  veins, 

deposits.  |  Contact  deposits. 

^  Chamber  deposits. 

'B.   Von   Cotta. — A  treatise  on  ore   deposits.       New   York,    1870. 

*J.  D.  Whitney.— The  metallic  wealth  of  the  United  States,  p.  34.      Philadelphia,  1854. 


21 


22  ECONOMIC    GEOLOGIC    DEPOSITS. 

V.  Origin  and  method  of  formation:    genetic. 
Kemp's  classification  of  ore  deposits. 

1.  Igneous  origin.3 

2.  From  solution. 

3.  From  suspension. 

Posepny's  two  classes  of  ore  deposits.* 

1.  Idiogenous  (contemporaneous  with  the  rock). 

2.  Xenogenous  (of  later  origin  than  the  rock). 
Crosby's  classification  of  economic  deposits.5 

1.  Igneous  origin. 

2.  Aqueo-igneous  origin. 

3.  Aqueous  origin. 

These  and  others  may  be  useful  each  in  its  place,  and  according  to  the 
purposes  for  which  it  is  made.6 

In  the  present  lectures  the  minerals  are  taken  up  separately  and  no 
particular  classification  is  followed. 

3F.   D.   Adams. — On  the  igneous  origin   of  certain   ore  deposits.       Montreal,    1894. 
J.  E.   Spurr. — Igneous  rocks  ...   as  related  to  the  occurrence  of  ores.       Transactions 
American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  XXXIII,  288-340.      New   York,    1903. 

4F.  Posepny. — The  genesis  of  ore-deposits.  Transactions  American  Institute  of 
Mining  Engineers,  XXIII,  197-369.  New  York,  1894.  Also  separate  publica- 
tion by  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  New  York,  1895. 

°W.  O.  Crosby. — A  classification  of  economic  geological  deposits.  American 
Geologist  XIII,  249-268.  Minneapolis,  1894.  Further  discussed  in  Engineering 
and  Mining  Journal,  LIX,  28.  New  York,  1895. 

R.  W.  Raymond. — A  new  classification  of  economic  geological  deposits.  En- 
gineering and  Mining  Journal,  LVIII,  412-413.  New  York,  1894. 

•For    other    classifications,    see    Kemp's    Ore    Deposits,    pp.    44-45,    and    Phillips'    Ore 

Deposits,   p.    3. 
M.    E.    Wadsworth.— Report   of  the   state   geologist   of   Michigan   for    1891-92,   p.    144. 


23 


24 


ROCK    CAVITIES. 


ROCK    CAVITIES. 

The  forms  of  ore-bodies  lead  to  the  belief  that  some  of  them  are 
deposited  in  cavities  and  many  of  them  in  fissures  in  the  rocks.  To  under- 
stand such  deposits  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  understand  the  origins, 
forms,  and  relations  of  rock  cavities  and  fissures. 

Two  ways  of  making   cavities. 

In  studying  rock  cavities  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  depth  at 
which  cavities  can  remain  open  is  limited,  and  that  they  are  therefore 
near-surface  phenomena.1 

Cavities  in  the  crust  of  the  earth  may  be  formed : 

I.  By  solution  «nd  removal  of  portions  of  the  rocks. 
II.  By  fractures  caused  by  shrinkage. 

III.  By  fractures  caused  by  expansion. 

IV.  By  fractures  caused  by  folding. 
V.  By  fractures  caused  by  faulting. 


Fig.  2. — Ideal  section  through  a  limestone  region  showing  cavities  left  by  solution  and 
removal    of   portions   of   the   rock.       (Shaler.) 

I.  Cavities  formed  by  solution.2 
Solvent  power  of  acidulated  waters. 
Dissolved  matter  in  spring  and  stream  waters. 
All  the  matter  in  solution  has  been  removed  from  the  rocks  through- 

which  the  water  has  passed. 

Cavities   both    small    and    large    are    produced    at    comparatively   shallow 
depths  by  constant  action  of  percolating  waters. 


.  ,  . 

n.  —  The   form   of   fissure-walls   as    affected    by   sub-fissuring    and   by   the 
rocks.       Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XXV,    499-513.       New    York, 


'F.   L.  Nason.  —  The  origin  of  vein  cavities.       Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,   LXXI, 

177-179;  209-210.      New  York,    1901. 
William   Glenn.  —  The   form   of   fissure-walls   as    affected 

flow   of 

1896. 
L.  M.  Hoskins.  —  Flow  and  fracture  of  rocks  as  related  to  structure.     Sixteenth  ann. 

rep.    U.    S.   Geological   Survey,   pt.   I,   845-874.       Washington,    1896. 
C.  R.  Van  Hise.  —  Deformation  of  rocks.      Journal  of  Geology,  IV,   195-213.      Chicago, 

1896. 

*E.    A.    Martel.  —  Applications    geologiques    de    la    speleologie.       Ann.    des    Mines,    9me 
ser.    X,    5-100.       Paris,    1896 


25 


26 


ROCK    CAVITIES. 


Cave-making  by  solution  is  also  hastened  by  mechanical  action. 

Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky  has  thirty-five  to  forty  miles  of  tunnels 
along  which  one  can  walk ;  cavern  70  feet  to  200  feet  high  in  places ; 
12  million  cubic  yards  of  rock  have  been  removed. 
Caves  are  common  in  limestone  regions. 

More  than   100,000  miles  of  caves  in  Kentucky.3      They  occur  also   in 
Tennessee,    Virginia,   Indiana,   Ohio,    Illinois,    Iowa,    Missouri,   and 
Arkansas. 
Caverns  are  supposed  to  be  formed  above   drainage,  but  in  some   cases 

they  are  formed  below  drainage,  and  even  below  sea  level. 
Mineral  bearing  breccia  sometimes  formed  in  caves.4 


Limonitv- 


Fig.    3. — Limonite    filling    cavities    in    fractured    limestone,    Wythe    county,    Virginia. 
(Benton.) 


II.  Cavities  formed  by  shrinkage  and  fracture. 

Some   rock  cavities   in   which   ore   deposits   have   been   formed   have   the 
appearance  of  having  originated  as  fractures. 

Fractures  produced  by  shrinkage  may  be  due  to 
a.  Contraction  produced  by  cooling. 

Deep-seated  rocks  are  highly  heated ;  if  by  erosion,  faulting,  or 
other  means,  they  are  brought  near  the  surface,  they  must  cool 
and  shrink. 

Expansion  for  increase  of  one  degree  Fahrenheit: 
granite,  one  inch  in  about  15,000  feet; 
slate,  one  inch  in  about  14,400  feet; 
marble,  one  inch  in  about  10,000  feet; 
sandstone,  one  inch  in  about  8,000  feet. 

»H.  C.  Hovey  and  R.   E.   Call.— The  Mammoth   Cave  of  Kentucky. 
«J.    C.    Branner.— The    zinc    and   lead   regions    of    North    Arkansas.       Ark.    Geological 
Survey,    V.,    Little    Rock,    1900. 


27 


28  ROCK   CAVITIES. 

b.  Contraction  produced  by  dolomitization.5 
Common  in  some  limestone  regions. 
Shrinkage  from  dolomitization  is  twelve  per  cent. 
Breccia.* 

III.  Cavities   formed  by  expansion. 

Expansion  of  rocks,  however  produced,  is  liable  to  open  cavities  wherever 

the  thrust  of  the  expanded  rocks  is  uneven,  or  is  unevenly  resisted. 
Expansion  may  be  caused  by 

a.  Hydration,  as  in  the  case  of  anhydrite  converted  into  gypsum  by 

hydration. 

b.  Elevation  of  temperature. 

c.  Growth  of  crystals  as  pointed  out  under  "accretion." 

IV.  Cavities  produced  by  folding  of  the  strata.7 
Strain  caused  by  lateral  pressure. 
Relief  by  fractures  along  anticlines8  and  synclines. 
Ores  in  anticlines  of  the  saddle  reefs  in  New  South  Wales. 


O'  £00' 

Fig.  4. — Section  across  the  saddle-reef  folds  at  Hargreaves,  N.  S.   Wales.      The  black 

areas  represent  ores   deposited   in  openings   at   the 

crests   of   anticlines. 

Manganese  in  anticlines  in  Cuba. 
Widespread  folding  of  rocks. 

V.  Fractures  and  cavities  produced  by  faulting. 
Faults  are  displacements  of  strata,  either  vertical  or  horizontal. 
Normal  and  reversed  faults. 

«E.    de   Beaumont. — (On    dolomitization).       Bui    de    la    Soc.    Geol.    de    France,    VIII, 

174-177.       Paris,    1836. 

Robert    Bell. — Honeycombed    limestones    in    Lake    Huron.       Bui.    Geol.    Soc.    Amer., 
VI,    295-304.       Rochester,    1895. 

*A.   Winslow. — Lead  and   zinc  deposits  of  Missouri.      Trans.   Amer.    Inst.   Min.   Eng., 

XXIV,   673-674.       New   York,    1895. 

C.  H.  Gordon. — Origin  of  the  brecciated  character  of  the  St.  Louis  limestone.      Jour- 
nal of  Geology,  III,   307-311.      Chicago,   1895. 

TA.  Daubree. — Etudes  synthetiques  de  geologic  experimentale,  pp.  300-374.    Paris,  1879. 
Bailey  Willis. — The  mechanics  of  Appalachian  structure.     Thirteenth  ami.   rep.  U.   S. 
Geological  Survey,  pt.  II,  211-281.      Washington,   1893. 

»J.  A.  Watt. — Saddle  reefs  at  Hargraves.     Records  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  N.   S. 

Wales,   V,  pt.  IV,    153-160.     Sidney,    1898;    VI,  pt.   II,   83,    1899. 
A.  C.   Spencer. — The  manganese  deposits  of  Santiago,   Cuba.     Engineering  and   Mining 

Journal,   LXXIV,  247-248.     New   York,    1902. 


29 


30 


ROCK  CAVITIES. 


Fig.  5. — Type  of  a  normal  fault. 


Fig.  7. — A  fracture  and  small  fault  formed  during  an  earthquake  in  Arizona. 


32 


ROCK  CAVITIES. 


Fig.   8. — Section  across  a  small  fault  formed  during  an  earthquake  in  Japan.      (Koto.) 


(H5)  LIMESTONE        C::.~)  const  IANDITOHI     fjgH  FIMI  CBAIMEO  SANDSTONE 

O«U»«TZ  40  HHOOOCH»05ITE       O  CUE          ®)  SELVAGE 

ENTERPRISE   MINE,  COLORADO, 
Fig.  9. — A  fault  containing  ore;  Enterprise  mine,   Rico,   Colorado.       (Rickard.) 


34  DISTRIBUTION   OR   ARRANGEMENT    OF   FRACTURES. 

Character  of  fracture  depends  partly  on  the  character  of  the  rock. 
Fault  fractures  are  sometimes  filled  with  debris,  or  are  open  enough  to 

permit  the  percolation  of  water. 

Fractures  are  sometimes  produced  by,  or  at  the  time  of,  earthquakes.' 
Such  fractures  are  commonly  accompanied  by  some,  though  not  neces- 
sarily great,  faulting. 

Examples  of  Japanese  earthquake  faults.10 
Examples  of  Charleston  earthquake." 

Debris  filling  such  cavities. 

Small  fractures  may  be  opened  without  faults  being  produced. 
Other   fractures  not   included  under  either  of  these  heads   may  be  pro- 
duced by   any  shifting  of  the   strains   in   the   earth's   crust,  however 
produced,  or  by  the  elevations  and  depressions  of  large  areas. 

DISTRIBUTION    OR   ARRANGEMENT    OF    FRACTURES. 

The  arrangement  of  fractures  is  usually  irregular. 

In  a  given  region,  however,  there  is  sometimes  a  marked  regularity  in  the 

spacing,  direction,  and  arrangement  of  fractures. 
Notable  examples  in  the  zinc  regions  of  Wisconsin. 

Rules  regarding  arrangement  and  direction  that  hold  in  one  region,  how- 
ever, are  not  generally  applicable  to  another. 

NOTICE. — It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  spaces  occupied  by  veins 
and  ore  bodies  have  not  necessarily  been  filled  as  open  cavities.  In  many 
instances  the  veins  have  been  enlarged  by  accretion;  in  others  they  have 
been  made  by  one  mineral  replacing  another. 

«W.  L.  Watts.— Across  the  Vatna  Jokull,  or  scenes  in  Iceland,  101,  109,  119,  153-157. 
London,  1876. 

1CB.  Koto. — On  the  cause  of  the  great  earthquake  in  central  Japan,  1891.  Journal 
of  the  College  of  Science,  Imperial  University  of  Japan,  V,  pt.  IV.  Tokyo, 
1893. 

"C.   E.   Button. — The   Charleston  earthquake.      Ninth  ann.   rep.   U.    S.   Geological   Sur- 
vey,  203-528.      Washington,    1889. 


FORMATION   OF   ORE   BODIES. 


THE   FORMATION  OF  ORE  BODIES.1 

Ore  is  a  metalliferous  mineral  or  rock,  especially  one  of  sufficient  value 

to  be  mined.      (Cent.   Diet.)2 
Ore  as  distinguished   from  earthy  mineral. 
Ore  deposits  as  distinguished  from  other  geologic  deposits  of  economic 

importance. 
Following  a  general  genetic  classification,  ore-bodies  occur  as : 

I.  Bedded  deposits;  II.  vein  deposits;  III.  surface  deposits  of  recent  date. 

I.  Bedded  deposits  contemporaneous  with  the  rocks  in  which 

they  occur. 

The  origin  of  bog  iron  ores. 
Originally    surface    deposits. 
Why  they  are  sometimes  interbedded  with  other  rocks. 


Fig.    10. — Section    in    the    manganese    region    of   north    Arkansas.       The    black    bands 

represent  ores  interbedded  with  the  accompanying 

horizontal  rocks. 


Fig.   11. — Iron  ores   (C,  D)   interbedded  with  folded  shales   (B)    and  novaculites   (A). 
(Penrose.) 

]J.    D.    Whitney. — The    metallic    wealth    of    the    United    States,    33-68.      Philadelphia, 

1854. 

F.    Posepny. — The   genesis   of   ore    deposits.      New   York,    1895. 
J.    F.    Kemp. — The   ore   deposits   of   the    United    States,    28-65.     New    York,    1893. 
L.  de  Launay. — Formation  des  gites  metalliferes.      Paris,  n.  d. 
S.   F.    Emmons. — Theories  of  ore   deposition   historically   considered.      Bui.    Geol.    Soc. 

Amer.,    XV,     1-28.       Manchester,    1904. 
C.    R.    Van   Hise. — Some   principles   controlling   the   deposition    of   ores.      Trans.    Amer. 

Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XXX,    27-177.      New    York,    1901. 
J.    H.    L.    Vogt.— Problems   in    the   geology   of   ore   deposits.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 

Eng.,    XXXI,    125-169.      New    York,    1902. 
H.    V.    Winchell. — The    genesis    of    ores    in    the    light    of    modern    theory.      Popular 

Science    Monthly,    LXXII,    534-542.      New    York,    1908. 

2J.    F.    Kemp.— What    is    an    ore?      Jour.    Canadian    Mining    Institute,    XII,    356-370. 
Montreal,    1910. 


38  FORMATION   OF   ORE   BODIES. 

Changes  through  which  the  ore  and  its  accompanying  rocks  may  have 
passed ;  folds,  faults,  erosion,  metamorphism,  replacement. 

The  structural  features  of  such  ore-bodies  are  involved  in  the  general 
structure  of  the  region. 

Conglomerate  beds  subsequently  rilled;  lead  mines  in  bedded  deposits  at 
Doe  Run,  Missouri,  and  at  other  places. 

Auriferous   conglomerates   of   South  Africa.3 

II.     Vein  deposits.4 

"Veins  are  aggregations  of  mineral  matter  in  fissures  in  rocks.  Lodes  are 
therefore  aggregations  of  mineral  matter  containing  ore,  in  fissures." 
Von  Cotta.5  In  other  words  -veins  may  not  contain  ore ;  but  lodes  are 
veins  that  do  contain  ore. 

Importance  of  definitions  in  law. 

The  formation  of  ore-bodies  (except  surface  and  bedded  deposits)  takes 
place : 

a.  By  the  filling  of  open  or  brecciated  cavities. 

b.  By  the  replacement  of  one  mineral  by  another. 

c.  By  accretion. 

d.  By  the  formation  of  contact  deposits. 

A.  Veins  formed  by  the  filling  of  cavities. 

The  cavities  here  meant  are  not  necessarily  large  open  gashes,  but  they 

may  be  waterways  through  breccia  formed  in  any  way. 
Examples :    the    lead    and    zinc    deposits    of    Wisconsin,    Missouri    and 

Arkansas. 

The  general  size  and  shape  of  an  ore-body  formed  by  the  filling  of  a 
cavity  is  necessarily  determined  by  the  size  and  shape  of  the  cavity 
itself,  except  in  cases  of  enlargement  and  replacement  as  explained 
below. 

3Hatch  and  Chalmers. — The  gold  mines  of  the  Rand.  London,  1895. 
T.  Reunert. — Diamonds  and  gold  in  South  Africa.  Capetown,  1893. 
L.  de  Launay.— Les  mines  d'or  du  Transvaal,  143-158;  177-311.  Paris,  1896. 

*J.  A.  Phillips. — A  treatise  on  ore  deposits,   119-141.     2d  ed  by  Henry  Louis,  London, 

1896. 
J.    F.    Kemp. — The    problem   of   the    metalliferous    veins.      Economic    Geology,    I,    207- 

232.      1906. 

"B.  Von  Cotta. — A'  treatise  on  ore  deposits,  26.  Translated  by  F.  Prime.  New 
York,  1870. 

«E.  Rahir  et  J.  Du  Fief. — De  1'action  chimique  des  eaux  courantes  dans  les  cavernes 
ou  dans  les  grands  canaux  souterrains.  Bui.  Soc.  Beige  de  Geol.,  XV,  11-29. 
Bruxelles,  1901. 


39 


40 


FORMATION   OF   ORE   BODIES. 


Fig.   12. — Section  of  a  box  pipe  used  for  ten  years  to  carry  mine  water  from  the  600 

to  the  1,000  foot  level.      The  water  passing  through  the  box  lined 

it  with  aragonite  more  than  half 'an  inch  thick. 

Crustification  as  distinguished  from  stratification. 

Vein  matter  precipitated  from  solution  on  the  walls  of  cavities. 
Methods  of  filling  cavities. 

Deposition  from  solutions  upon  cooling  and  relief  of  pressure.7 
Sublimates  deposited  by  solfataric  action. 
Origin  of  the  mineral-bearing  solutions. 
Theory  of  ascending  solutions.8 

Solubility   of  gold.9 

Sandberger's   theory  of  lateral   infiltrations.10 

Relations  of  the  structural  features  of  a  region  to  the  origin  of  different 
deposits,  on  account  of  their  influence  on  the  movement  of  solu- 
tions. 

Influence  of  clay  beds. 
Influence  of  wall-rock.11 


7H.  N.  Stokes.— Experiments  on  the  solution,  transportation,  and  deposition  of  cop- 
per, silver,  and  gold.  Economic  Geology,  I,  644-650.  August,  1906. 

6W.  H.  Weed. — Ore  deposition  and  vein-enrichment  by  ascending  hot  waters.  Trans. 
Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXXIII,  747-754.  New  York,  1903. 

"A.  D.  Brokaw. — The  solution  of  gold  in  the  surface  alterations  of  ore  bodies.  Journal 
of  Geology,  XVIII,  321-326.  Chicago,  1910. 

1CF.  Sandberger. — On  the  formation  of  metallic  veins.  Canadian  Naturalist,  new  ser., 
VIII,  345-362.  Montreal,  1878.  American  Geologist,  XVIII,  393.  December, 
1896. 

C.  Klement.— La  theorie  de  la  secretion  laterale.  Bui.  Soc.  Beige  de  Geol.,  XII, 
121-125.  Bruxelles,  1899-1902. 

"R.  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jr. — Some  causes  of  ore  shoots.  Economic  Geology,  V,  97-133. 
March.  1910. 


42 


FORMATION   OP    ORE   BODIES. 


Influence  of  intersecting  fissures. 
Influence  of  local  solutions. 

Relations  of  eruptives  and  of  high  temperatures  generally  to  the  forma- 
tion of  mineral  veins.12 

B.  Veins  formed  by  replacement  of  one  mineral  by  another 
(metasomatism) . 

Examples  of  replacement  in  the  silicification  of  corals,13  wood,  and  shells, 

and  the  replacement  of  organic  matter  by  iron  pyrites. 
This  process  is  called  metasomatic  replacement,  or  metasomatosis." 
Replacement  in  dolomitization. 


Fig.   13. — Section  in  a  quarry  at  Kilkenny,   Ireland,   showing  the  unaltered   limestone 
and  the  dolomite.       (Prestwich.) 


12J.    F.    Kemp.  —  The    role    of   the    igneous    rocks    in    the    formation    of    veins.      Trans. 

Amer.   Inst.   Min.   Eng.,   XXXI,    169-198.       New   York,    1902;   XXXIII,   699-714. 

New    York,    1903. 
W.   H.   Weed.—  Ore   deposits   near   igneous   contacts.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng., 

XXXIII,    715-746.      New    York,    1903. 

"Chemical   News,   V,   95;   Jour.    Chem.    Soc.,   XV,    107. 

14C.    R.    Van    Hise.  —  Metasomatism.      Sixteenth    ann.    rep.    U.    S.    Geological    S 


rvey, 
Min. 


pt.    1,   689-694.       Washington,    1896. 
W.     Lindgren.  —  Metasomatic     processes    in     fissure-veins.       Trans.     Amer.     Inst. 

Eng.,    XXX,    578-692.      New    York,    1901. 
James   Park.—  Metasomatic    replacement.      Engineering   and    Mining   Journal,    LXXIX, 

799.     New   York,    1905. 
C.   H.   Smyth,  Jr.  —  Replacement  of  quartz   by   pyrite   and   corrosion   of  quartz   pebbles. 

Amer.    Jour.    Sci.,    CLXIX,    277-285.      New    Haven,    1905. 
W.     Lindgren.  —  Metasomatic    processes     in    the    gold    deposits    of    western    Australia. 

Economic    Geology,    I,    530-544.      June,    1906. 
J.    M.    Boutwell.  —  Genesis  of   the   ore-deposits  of   Bingham,   Utah.      Trans.   Amer.    Inst. 

Min.    Eng.,   XXXVI,    541-580.      New    York,    1906. 


43 


44 


FORMATION   OF   ORE   BODIES. 


C.    Veins  formed  by  enlargement   or   accretion. 

Enlargement  of  quartz  grains. 

Illustration  of  needle  ice  and  crystallization  in  the  soil. 

"I  venture  the  suggestion  that  these  minerals  (quartz  and  calcite)  in 
crystallizing,  have  exerted  a  force  analagous  to  the  expansion  of  water 
on  freezing,  which  has  crowded  the  rock  fragments  asunder."  I.  C. 
Russell.15 

The  size,  form,  and  structural  relations  of  certain  geodes  due  to  en- 
largement.16 


Fig.  14. — A  geode  formed  in  the  stem  of  a  crinoid.      An  illustration  of  the  mechanical 
force    of   the    crystallization    of   quartz. 

Evidences  of  the  mechanical  force  of  the  process." 
Possible  relations  to  vein  enlargement  and  to  brecciation. 

D.    Contact  deposits. 

The  formation  of  contact  deposits  is  a  phase  of  contact  metamorphism 
due  to  the  combined  action  of  heat,  water,  and  gases.18 

"I.  C.  Russell. — Twentieth  ann.  rep.  U.   S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  II,  207.      Washing- 
ton,   1900. 

"N.  S.  Shaler. — Formation  of  dikes  and  veins.     Bui.  Geol.   Soc.  America,   X,  253-262. 
Rochester,    1899. 

"Becker   and    Day. — The   linear   force   of  growing   crystals.      Proc.    Washington   Acad. 

Sci.,  VII,  283-288.      Washington,   1906. 
R.  A.   Daly. — The   calcareous   concretions   of   Kettle   Point,    Lambton   county,    Ontario. 

Journal   of   Geology,    VIII,    135-150.      Chicago,    1900. 

»W.  Lindgren.— The  character  and  genesis  of  certain  contact-deposits.     Trans.   Amer. 

Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XXXI,   226-244.      New   York,    1902. 
J.    F.    Kemp. — The    role    of    the    igneous    rocks    in    the    formation    of    veins.      Trans. 

Amer.   Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXXI,   169-198.      New  York,   1902. 
W.    H.    Weed. — Contact    metamorphic    and    other    ore    deposits    near    igneous    contacts. 

Engineering   and   Mining  Journal,    LXXIV,    513.      New    York,    1902. 


46  FORMATION   OP    ORE   BODIES. 

The  enrichment  of  veins.1" 

Enrichment  affected  by  climatic  conditions,  topography,  nature  of  the  ores 
and  of  the  wall-rocks.20 

III.  Deposits  of  recent  date,  at  or  near  the  surface.21 

The  usual  classification  of  mineral  deposits  as  "surface  deposits"  is  open 
to  the  objection  that  many  of  these  are  no  longer  either  at  or  near 
the  surface.  Examples:  iron  ores  of  carboniferous  age;  placer  gold 
of  Cretaceous  age.22 

Surface  deposits  are  local,  and  are  forming  at  present ;  they  are  formed 
(1)  by  mechanical  concentration;  (2)  by  chemical  action. 

A.    Deposits  formed  by  mechanical  concentration. 

Mechanical  concentrations  commonly  result  from  the  -decay  of  rocks 
and  the  mechanical  concentration  of  certain  of  the  minerals  contained 
in  the  original  rocks. 

Such  concentration  may  be  due  to  differences  in  specific  gravities  of  the 
minerals,  or  to  differences  in  hardness. 
Stream  and  litoral  deposits. 
Placer  gold. 
Stream  tin. 
Magnetic  iron  sands. 
Monazite   and   zircon   sands. 
Brazilian  diamonds. 

B.    Deposits  formed  by  chemical  action.'3 

Surface  deposits  from  chemical  action  or  from  chemical  alterations  at 
the  surface  may  result  in  the  modification  of  original  deposits  or  in 
the  production  of  new  ones. 
•    Examples   of   new    surface    deposits    are    bog   iron   ores,    salt    gypsum, 

nitre,  soda. 
Incrustations  of  smithsonite   and   "Mexican  onyx." 

"W.  H.  Weed. — Enrichment  of  mineral  veins  by  later  metallic  sulphides.      Bui.   Geol. 

Soc.  Amer.,  XI,  179-206.  Rochester,  1900. 
W.  H.  Weed. — The  enrichment  of  gold  and  silver  veins.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min. 

Eng.,  XXX,  424-448.  New  York,  1901. 
A.  L.  Collins.— Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXXI,  951-953.  New  York,  1902. 

*°J.  E.  Spurr. — Enrichment  in  fissure  veins  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXXX, 
597-598.  New  York,  1905. 

"For  references  see  titles  given  under  the  heads  of  the  minerals  mentioned  as 
examples. 

aR.  L.  Dunn. — Auriferous  conglomerate  in  California.  Twelfth  rep.  State  Mineral- 
ogist, 459-471.  Sacramento,  1894. 

"Edward  Steidtmann. — A  graphic  comparison  of  the  alteration  of  rocks  by  weather- 
ing with  their  alteration  by  hot  solutions.  Economic  Geology,  III,  381-409. 
July-Aug.,  1908. 


47 


48  FORMATION   OF   ORE   BODIES. 

Some  ore-bodies  and  deposits,  though  not  necessarily  deposited  by 
chemical  action/  owe  their  value  to  chemical  alterations  at  or  near 
the  surface. 

Certain  residuary  deposits  are  produced  by  chemical  action  and  mechan- 
ical concentration. 

Manganese  ores  of  Arkansas,  Georgia,  Virginia,  and  Brazil. 
Gossan,  the  altered  part  of  a  lode. 

Kaolins  and  clays  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  feldspars. 
Fullers'  earth  in  Arkansas  made  by  the  weathering  of  a  clay. 


49 


50  FEATURES   OF   ORE   DEPOSITS. 


THE  FEATURES  OF  ORE  DEPOSITS. 

The  features  of  ore  deposits,  their  shape,  structure,  arid  general  relations, 
depend  partly  upon  the  methods  of  their  formation,  that  is,  whether 
they  were  laid  down  as  bedded  deposits  contemporaneous  with  their 
accompanying  rock  beds,  or  were  deposited  later  in  cavities,  or  occur 
as  replacements,  alterations,  or  contact  deposits. 

General  forms. 
Shapes  of  cave  deposits. 

The  shapes  of  bedded  deposits  are  determined  by  the  conditions  of  depo- 
sition.    Examples :   the  iron  ores   of   Pennsylvania ;   the  phosphate  de- 
posits of  Arkansas  and  Tennessee. 
Shapes  of  fissure  deposits. 
Fissure  veins.1 

"A  fissure  vein  is  a  mineral  mass  occupying  a  fissure  in  the  earth's 

crust." — R.  W.  Raymond. 
Gash,2  lenticular,  bedded,  and  contact  veins. 


Fig.   IS. — A  gash  vein' in  the  magnesian  limestone  of  Wisconsin.       (Chamberlin.) 

Irregularities  of  thickness. 

Irregularities  of  direction,  outcrop,  dip,  and  strike. 

Groups   of  veins;   feeders,   ore-shoots,  or  chimneys. 

What  is  a  fissure  vein?      Economic   Geology,   I,   38;    167-172;   282-286;    385-387;   481- 
484;  700-702.       1906. 

"For  illustrations  of  gash  veins,  see  Twentieth  ann.  rep.  U.   S.   Geological  Survey,  pt. 
VII,  420.      Washington,   1900. 


.31 


52 


FEATURES  OF  ORE  DEPOSITS. 


Parallelism  of  veins. 

Produced  by  torsion  or  other  fractures,  or  by  bedding. 
Complications  produced  by   faulting.8 


Fig.    16. — Illustration   of   reversed   faults   that   have   displaced   the   beds   but   have   left 
them  parallel. 


Fig.    17. — Section   in  the   Enterprise  mine,   Rico,   Colorado,   showing  both   vertical   and 
horizontal   faulting.       (Rickard.) 

Effect  of  vertical  displacements;  of  lateral  displacements. 
Complications  by  intersection  of  several  ore  deposits. 

Mother  lode  of  California  112  miles  long.4 
Size  and   extent  of  ore   deposits. 

Uncertainties  regarding  the  size  and  form  of  ore-bodies. 

'See  illustrations  bv  Philip  Argall,  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXXXVI,  366-7. 
New   York,  "1908. 

«H.  W.  Fairbanks. — Geology  of  the  mother  lode  region.      Tenth  ann.  rep.   State  Mining 
Bureau  of  California,   23-90. 


4  FEATURES  OF   ORE  DEPOSITS.  . 

Internal   and   structural   features. 
Banded  structures  produced  by  crustification. 

Brecciated   structure  produced   by   cementing   of  fractured  materials. 
Definition  of  terms. 

Hanging-wall;    foot-wall;   country  rock. 

Selvage,  gouge,  or  flucan  is  the  clay  seam  between  a  vein  and  the 
wall-rock. 

Possible  relation  of  clay  to  the  vein  matter. 
Ore. 
Gangue. 

Association  of  ore's  and  gangues. 
Some  veins  are  sharply  defined;  others  merge  into  their  walls. 


Fig.    18. — A  vein  brecciated   on  one  side        Fig.   19. — Ore-bearing  quartz.     The  coun- 
and  banded  on  the  other.  try  rock  is  altered  but  contains 

(Foster.)  no    ore.        (Lmdgren.) 


Fig.  20. — Quartz  vein  along  the  foot-wall        Fig.    21. — Vein    with    its    ores    extending 
of    a    porphyry    dike    with    stringers  into  the  altered  country  rock, 

running  into  the  porphyry.  (Lindgren.)  (Lindgren.) 


55 


56 


FEATURES   OF    ORE   DEPOSITS. 


Distribution  of  ores  in  veins. 

Distribution  due  to  variation  in  the  size  of  the  vein. 
Distribution  due  to  other  causes. 

Vugs ;   lenses. 

Bonanzas  are  ore  pockets  or  local  enlargements  of  veins.5 

Horses ;    stringers ;    shoots  ',*   chimneys. 
Effect  of  change  of  dip  on  the  character  of  the  lode. 
Effect  of  country  rock  on  the  lode.7 

In  Swaledale,  Yorkshire,  the  lead  ores  are  richest  in  the  limestones 
and  poorest  in  the  grits  and  shales. 

Ore-bodies  are  often  found  at  the  contact  between  two  formations. 


Fig.   22. — A   horse   with   the  vein   passing 
around  it  on  both  sides.     (Foster.) 


Fig.     24. — Sheeted     vein     structure     and 

minor    fissures,    Ajax    mine,     Cripple 

Creek,    Colo.        (Lindgren    and 

Ransome.) 


Fig.  23. — Contact  vein,  Grass  Valley,  Cal. 
(Lindgren.) 


H    Ga/e 

Fig.    25.  —  Compound    vein. 
Weed.) 


(Beck    and 


57 


58  FEATURES   OF   ORE   DEPOSITS. 

Ores  affected  by  superficial  alteration." 
Oxidation  at  the  immediate  surface. 

Gossan,  Colorado,  chapeau  de  fer,  eisener  hut. 
Origin  of  these  names  from  the  rusty  brown  color  of  the  oxidized 

ores. 

In  arid  regions  the  surface  is  not  always  deeply  oxidized  or  colored. 
Why  free  gold  near  the  surface  is  replaced  by  sulphides  in  depths. 
Depths  to  which  alterations  extend  and  the  nature  of  the  changes  with 
various  ores.    From  15  to  1,500  feet. 
Copper  ores  in  Chile  are  affected  to  a  depth  of  1,500  feet. 
Case  of  the  Ducktown  copper  mines  in  East  Tennessee. 
Silver  in  Granite   Mountain,   Montana,  affected  to  a  depth  of  900 

feet. 

Gold  in  soft  schists  in  the  Congo  Soco  mines  in  Brazil  at  378  feet. 
Zinc  changed  to  carbonate  to  the  depth  of  weathering. 
Effect  of  these  changes  upon  the  value  of  the  ores. 

Different  treatment  required  for  the  different  kinds  of  ores. 

ST.    A.    Rickard. — The    formation    of   bonanzas    in    the    upper    portions    of    gold-veins. 

Trans.   Amer.    Inst.   Min.   Eng.,   XXXI,    198-220.       New    York,    1902. 
•W.  H.  Weed. — Ore  shoots.      Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXXXII,    196.      New 

York,   1906. 

TL.  Bradley. — An  inquiry  into  the  deposition  of  lead  ore.      London,  1862. 

*R.  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jr. — The  superficial  alteration  of  ore  deposits.      Journal  of  Geology 
II,  288-317.      Chicago,   1894. 


59 


Part  II 

The  Metallic  Minerals 

IRON.1 

The  prevalence  of  iron  in  the  rocks. 

Uses. 

Of  all  the  metals,  iron  in  its  various  forms  is  the  one  in  most  common 
use  in  the  manufacture  of  tools,  machinery,  and  constructions  of  all 
kinds. 

Ores. 

Iron  is  seldom  found  in  the  native  state;  some  meteorites  are  native  iron. 
The  ores  of  iron  are  oxides,  carbonates,  and  sulphides. 
The  oxides  are  anhydrous  and  hydrous. 
Anhydrous  oxides. 

Hematite  (Fe2  Oa),  oxygen  30,  iron  70,  if  chemically  pure.     This  is 

the  most  important  of  the  American  ores. 
Specular  iron. 
Red  hematite,  called  "kidney"  ore  when  it  is  reniform. 

Fossil  ore. 
Itabirite,  iron  schist. 
Red  ochre. 

Magnetite  (Fe3  O«),  oxygen  27.6,  iron  72.4. 
Magnetic  ore  is  often  titaniferous.2 
Franklinite  deposits  of  New  Jersey. 
Hydrous   oxides. 

Limonite,  or  brown  hematite  (2Fe2  O3  .  StbO),  oxygen  25.7,  water 

14.5,  iron  59.8. 
Bog  iron. 
Bombshell  ore.8 
Ochres   (excepting  red  ochre). 
Other   forms  of  limonite. 
Turgite :   oxygen  28.5,   iron  66.2,   water   5.3. 
Goethite:  oxygen  27,  iron  62.9,  water  10.1. 

'James    M.    Swank. — History    of    the   manufacture    of    iron    in    all    ages.      Philadelphia, 

1884. 
J.    P.    Lesley. — The   iron   manufacturer's   guide.      New   York,    1859. 

2J.    F.    Kemp. — A    brief    review    of    the    titaniferous    magnetites.        School    of    Mines 
Quarterly,   XX,    323-356;   New   York,    1899;   XXI,    56-65;   New   York,    1899. 

3H.    M.    Chance. — The   origin   of  bombshell    ore.      Proc.    Am.    Phil.    Soc.,    XLVII      136 
Philadelphia,    1908. 


61 


62  IRON. 

Carbonates. 

Siderite,  or   spathic  iron    (FeCOa),  carbon  dioxide  37.9,  iron  pro- 
toxide 62.1,  equivalent  to  48.3  metallic  iron. 
Clay  ironstone. 
Blackband. 
Brown   carbonate. 

Sulphides. 

Iron  pyrites  (FeS2),  sulphur  53.4,  iron  46.6.  Used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sulphur  and  sulphuric  acid.  (See  under  Iron  Pyrites.) 

Modes  of  occurrence  and  association  of  the  ores  of  iron. 
Hematite  is  commonly  a  replacement  and  as  contact  deposits  in  rocks 

of  all  ages. 
Magnetite  occurs  in  metamorphic  and  igneous  rocks,  as  contact  deposits, 

and  as  sands  on  lake,  river,  or  sea  shores. 
Limonite  commonly  originates  as  a  bog  ore  in  swamps  or  ponds,  or 

it  may  be  formed  by  the  weathering  of  some  iron  bearing  mineral. 
Carbonate  commonly  occur  as  concretions  in  shales  and  clays. 

The  origin  of  iron  ores.4 
Black  iron  sands.5 

The  magnetite  of  black  iron   sands   forms  a   source  of  supply   of 

useful  iron  ore  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
Separation  of  mixed  ores  by  magnetic  processes.8 

Impurities  found  in  the  ores  of  iron. 

Phosphorus  makes  iron  brittle  or  "cold  short." 

Sulphur  makes  iron  brittle  at  a  red  heat,  or  "hot  short,"  and  de- 
stroys its  welding  power. 

Silica:  over  37%  ruins  the  tenacity  of  iron,  making  it  "rotten 
short." 

4T.    S.    Hunt. — The   genesis   of   certain   iron    ores.       Canadian    Naturalist,    new   series, 

IX,    431-433.      Montreal,    1881. 
Bibliography   of   the   origin   of   iron   ores.       Bui.    6,    Geological   Survey   of   Minnesota, 

258-334.      Minneapolis,    1891. 
J.    S.    Newberry. — The    genesis    of    our    iron    ores.      School    of    Mines    Quarterly,    II, 

1-17.     New   York,    1880. 
he   pyri 

Journal,    LXXXVI,    408-410.      New    York,    1908. 
H.    M.    Chance. — A    new    theory    of    the    genesis    of    brown    hematite    ores.      Trans. 

Am.   Inst.   Min.   Eng.,   XXXIX,   522-539.     New   York,    1909. 
E.  J.   Moore. — The   occurrence   and   origin   of   some   bog   iron   deposits   in   the   district 

of   Thunder   Bay,    Ontario.      Economic   Geology,    V,    528-537.      Sept.,    1910. 

•D.  T.  Day  and  R.  H.  Richards.— Useful  minerals  in  the  black  sands  of  the  Pacific 
Slope.  Mineral  resources  of  the  United  States  for  1905,  1175-1258.  Washing- 
ton, 1906. 

R.  H.  Richards. — Black  sand  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  Technology  Quarterly,  XIX, 
163-166.  Boston,  1906. 

•O.  Bilharz. — Industrial  importance  of  the  process  of  magnetic  separation  of  iron 
ores  as  invented  by  J.  P.  Wetherill.  Frankfurt,  1899. 


63 


64  IBON. 

Titanium:    over  3%  renders  iron  very  difficult  to  fuse. 

Arsenic   softens   steel,   reduces   its   tenacity,   and   1.6%   destroys   its 

malleability. 

Antimony :    .1  to  .2%  makes  it  "cold  or  hot  short." 
Processes  have  been  devised  for  using  ores  containing  impurities. 

The  Thomas-Gilchrist  process  of  steel  making  uses  pig  iron  high 

in  phosphorus. 
The  Clapp-Griffiths  process  permits  much  phosphorus  when  silicon 

is   carefully  excluded. 
The   Bessemer  process  of  decarburizing  cast  iron,  by  which  steel 

is  cheapened. 

Bessemer  ore  should  not  contain  more  than   .05  per  cent  phos- 
phorous. 

Non-Bessemer  iron  ore. 
In  general  the  impurities  that  damage  ore  for  one  purpose  may  be 

beneficial  for  some  other. 

The  properties  that  determine  the  value  of  iron  ores  are  the  high 
percentage  of  iron,  and  the  low  percentage  of  impurities. 

Distribution  of  the  Ores  of  Iron. 

Geological. 

Iron  is  found  in  rocks  of  all  ages,  but  is  of  more  importance  in 

some  than  in  others. 
Pre-Cambrian  iron  of  Lake  Superior. 
Cambro-Silurian  iron  of  Brazil. 
Silurian  ore  of  Missouri. 
Archean,   Cambro-Silurian,   Silurian,   and   Carboniferous   iron  belts 

of  the  Appalachians. 
Tertiary  iron  of  Texas  and  Arkansas.1 
Iron  deposits  are  forming  at  the  present  time. 

Geographical. 
Foreign  iron  regions. 
United  Kingdom,8  Germany,  France,  and  Russia  are  the  principal 

foreign  producers. 
Spain.9 

7R.    A.    F.    Penrose,    Jr. — The    iron    deposits    of    Arkansas.       Geological    Survey    of 
Arkansas  for    1892,    I.     Little    Rock,    1892. 

8J.   D.  Lockwood. — The  iron  ores  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland;   their  mode  of  occur- 
rence   and    origin.      London,    1893. 

•E.     Mackay-Heriot. — The     Bilbao     iron     mines.      Engineering    and     Mining     Tournal, 
LXXVI,    510-512.      New   York,    1903. 


65 


66  IRON. 

Scandinavia.10 

Great  variety  of  ores  and  wide  range  of  associated  rocks. 

Bog  ores  have  been  worked  since  very  early  times. 
Siberia.11 
New  South  Wales.12 

The  iron  ore  reserves  of  the  world.13 

Professor   Tornebohn   of  the   Swedish   government  estimates   the  total 

available  world's  supply   at  ten  billion  tons  of  ore.     This,   at  the 

present  rate  of  consumption,  will  last  50  years. 
One-fourth  of  world's  original  iron   resources  has  been  used. 
The  most  conservative   estimates   show   that   the   iron   deposits   of   the 

United  States  can  last  only  about  one  hundred  years.     After  that 

low  grade  ores  must  be  used. 

Distribution  in  America  outside  of  United  States. 

Brazil  contains  extensive  deposits  of  good  ore,  but  is  now  producing 

very  little.14 
Cuba.15 

Bessemer  magnetite  ores  of  metamorphic  origin,  being  replacements 

in  igneous  gabbros. 
Canada.15a 

IRON    REGIONS    OF   THE   UNITED    STATES.16 

There    are    three    general    regions :    Appalachian    region ;    Lake    Superior 
region;  western  region. 

10H.    Sjogren. — The  geological   relations   of   the   Scandinavian  iron  ores.     Trans.   Amer. 

Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XXXVIII,    766-835.      New    York,    1908. 
"P.    Kovalew. — Gisements    de    fer    du    Mont    Irkouskan.      Memoires    du    Comite    Geol- 

ogique.      Nouv    Ser.,    VI,    121-126.      St.    Petersburg,    1903. 

12J.  B.  Jaquet. — The  iron  ore  deposits  of  New  South  Wales.  Memoirs  of  the 
Geological  Survey  of  N.  S.  Wales.  Sydney,  1901. 

13C.  K.  Leith.— Iron  ore  reserves.     Economic  Geology,   I,  360-368.     Feb.-March,    1906. 
The   iron   ore    resources   of   the   world.    Eleventh    International    Geological    Congress,    2 
vols.   and   atlas.      Stockholm,    1910. 

14H.  K.   Scott. — The  iron  ores  of  Brazil.     Journal  of  Iron  and  Steel  Inst.,  LXI,  237- 

254.      London,    1902. 
O.  A.  Derby.— The  iron  ores  of  Brazil.     The  iron  ore  resources  of  the  world,  813-822. 

Stockholm,    1910. 

"A.  C.   Spencer. — The  iron  ores  of  Santiago,   Cuba.     Engineering  and  Mining  Journal, 

LXXII,  633-634.  New  York,  1901. 
A.  C.  Spencer. — Three  deposits  of  iron  ore  in  Cuba.  Bui.  340,  U.  S.  Geological 

Survey,  318-329.  Washington,  1908. 
"aEugene  Haanel. — The  iron  ores  of  Canada.  The  iron  ore  resources  of  the  world, 

721-743.      Stockholm,    1910. 

"Raphael  Pumpelly. — The  mining  industries  of  the  United  States  (exclusive  of  the 
precious  metals).  Tenth  census,  XV.  Washington,  1880. 

C.  W.  Hayes. — The  iron  ore  supply  of  the  United  States.  Bui.  28,  Amer.  Inst. 
Min.  Eng.,  373-379.  New  York,  1909. 

J  F.  Kemp. — Iron  ore  reserves  in  the  United  States.  The  iron  ore  resources  of  the 
world,  755-777.  Stockholm,  1910. 


67 


68  IRON. 

/.  The  Appalachian  region  ores  mostly  non-Bessemer. 
Iron  occurs  in  four  general  northeast-southwest  belts  following  the  geo- 
logical  structure. 

Beginning  with  the  easternmost,  these  are : 

Archaean  belt :  ores  chiefly  lenticular  deposits  of  magnetite  in  gneisses 
and  other  metamorphic  rocks.  This  belt  is  most  important  in  the 
Adirondacks."  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Virginia. 
Cambro-Silurian  belt :  ores  chiefly  non-Bessemer  limonites,  associated 
with  schists,  limestones,  and  clays.  This  belt  is  most  important  in 
Virginia,  Alabama,  Tennessee,  and  Pennsylvania. 

Upper-Silurian  belt :  ores  non-Bessemer  red  hematites,  "fossil  ore," 
limited  to  the  Clinton  beds,  which  contain  intercalated  beds  of  iron 
ore  almost  everywhere  that  they  occur.  They  are  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  the  Birmingham,  Ala.,18  district,  where  they  are  the 
chief  source  of  supply. 

Carboniferous  belt :  carbonate  ores  which  are  of  little  importance  at 
present.  Western  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Kentucky  ores  are  of 
this  type. 

The  most  important  producing  states  in  the  Appalachian   region,  in  the 
order  of  their  importance  in  1897,  are : 

Alabama.19 

Production  in   1906,  1,397,014  tons. 

Ores :    Non-Bessemer  hematites  in  the  Clinton  beds  of  the  Upper 

Silurian  are  the  most  important.20 
Brown    hematites     (limonite)    belonging    to    the    Cambro-Silurian 

belt  are  also  important. 
Associated  rocks. 
Birmingham  is  the  chief  district. 

"E.    C.    Eckel. — Brown    hematite    deposits    of    eastern    New    York    and    western    New 

England.      Engineering   and    Mining    Tournal,    LXXVIII,    432-434.      New    York, 

1904. 
J.    F.    Kemp. — The    titaniferous    iron    ores    of   the    Adirondacks.      Nineteenth    ann.    rep. 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  Ill,  377-422.      Washington,  1899. 
W.    O.    Crosby. — Geological    history    of    the    hematite    iron    ores    of    the    Antwerp    and 

Fowler    belt    in    New    York.      Technology    Quarterly,    XIV.,    162-170.      Boston, 

1901. 

18Burchard,    Butts  and  Eckel. — Iron  ores  of  the   Birmingham   district,   Alabama.     Bui. 
400,   U.    S.    Geological    Survey.      Washington,    1910. 

"W.    B.    Phillips.— Iron-making    in    Alabama.      Geological    Survey   of    Alabama,    1896. 
2d   ed.      Montgomery,    1898. 

*>E.    C.    Eckel.— The    Clinton    hematite.      Engineering    and    Mining   Journal,    LXXIX, 

897-898.      New    York,    1905. 
E.    F.    Burchard. — The    Clinton    iron    ore    deposits    in    Alabama.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst. 

Mm.    Eng.,    XL,    75-133.     New   York,    1910. 


1KOX. 


Pennsylvania.21 

Product  in  1908,  11,348,549  tons. 

Ores:   The  Archaean  magnetites  and  Cambro-Silurian   limonites  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  state  are  the  most  important;  hematites 
and  carbonites  are  of  little  importance. 
Virginia." 

Production  in  1905,  320,458  tons. 
Ore :   chiefly  limonite. 
Geological  relations  of  the  ores. 
The  Rich  Patch  deposits.28 


Ore       [jj^^Z/oajgr  Silurian  L 

Fig.  26. — Section  across  the  Rich  Patch  iron  tract,  Alleghany  county,  Va.       (Ch 
The   left  end   of  the   section   is  north. 


Fig.  27. — Section  through  an  open  cut  at  the  Rich  Patch  mines,  Alleghany  county,  Va. 
(Chance.) 

*'T.  C.  Hopkins. — The  Cambro-Silurian  limonite  ores  of  Pennsylvania.     Bui.  Geological 
Society  of  America,  XI,'  475-502.       Rochester,   1900. 

^Geological  Atlas,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.      Staunton  folio.      1894. 

»H.    M.    Chance. — The    Rich    Patch    iron    tract,    Virginia.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 
Eng.,    XXIX,    210-223.      New    York,    1900. 


71 


72  IRON. 

Tennessee.24 

Production  in  1897,  677,037  tons;  value  per  ton  at  the  mines,  $0.71. 
Ores :    red  hematite  and  limonite  of  non-Bessemer  quality. 
Localities  and  geological  relations  of  the  Tennessee  ores. 

Other  producing  states  in  the  eastern  or  Appalachian  regions  are : 

New  York :  ores  chiefly  magnetite  from  Archsen  rocks.     Also  Cambro- 
Silurian. 


Ore 


Fig.  28. — Section  showing  the  geology  of  the  Cambfo-Silurian  iron  ores  of  the  Amenia 
mine,    Dutchess  county,   N.    Y.       (Putnam.) 

New  Jersey :  magnetites  in  Archaean  rocks. 

Georgia.25 

Maryland.28 

North   Carolina,   Ohio,   Kentucky. 

Relative  production  and  geological  relations  of  the  ores. 

//.  The  Lake  Superior  Region* 

Ores :  hematites  and  magnetites,  usually  of  Bessemer  quality. 

The   ores    occur   in    masses    associated    with    greatly    disturbed    schists, 

•jaspers,  cherts,  and  quartzites,  of  pre-Cambrian  age. 
Soapstone   is  often  an  important  associated  rock. 
Importance  of  dikes  in  the  Gogebic  range. 
Extent  of  the  ore  bodies. 

Norrie   mines ;    Lake    Angeline   mine ;    Biwabik    mine. 

"Geological   Atlas   of   the    U.    S.    Geological    Survey.       Ringgold,    Sewanee,    Cleveland, 

Chattanooga,    and    Loudon    folios. 

F.  L.  Garrison. — The  iron  ores  of  Shady  Valley,  Tennessee.  Engineering  and  Min- 
ing Journal,  LXXVIII,  590-592.  New  York,  1904. 

"T.  L.  Watson. — The  yellow-ocher  deposits  of  the  Cartersville  district,  Bartow  County, 

Ga.     Trans.   Amer.   Inst.   Min.   Eng.,   XXXIV,   643-666.     New    York,   1904. 
C.   W.   Hayes. — Geological    relations   of  the   iron-ores   in    the    Cartersville    district,   Ga. 

Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XXX,    403-419.    New    York,    1901. 
S.    Mays    Ball. — Review    of    fossil    iron    ore    deposits    of    Georgia.      Engineering    and 

Mining   Journal,    LXXXVIII,   200-204.      New    York,    1909. 
S.  W.   McCallie. — Notes  on  the  fossil   iron   ores  of  Georgia.   Engineering  and   Mining 

Journal,    LXX,    757.      New    York,    1900. 

MJ.  T.   Singewald,  Jr. — The  iron  ores  of  Maryland.     Economic   Geology,   IV,  530-543. 
1909. 

27J.   Head  and  A.  P.  Head. — The   Lake   Superior  iron  ore  mines.     Cassier's  Magazine, 

XVI,    623-646.      Oct.,    1899. 

C.  K.  Leith. — A  summary  of  Lake  Superior  geology  with  special  reference  to  recent 
studies  of  the  iron-bearing  series.  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXXVI,  101- 
153.  New  York,  1905. 


74 


IRON. 


Theories  regarding  the  origin  of  the  ores.28 

Sedimentary  origin ;  organic  origin ;   igneous  origin ;   replacements. 

The  principal  districts  or  "ranges"  are : 

a.  The  Menominee  range29  is  mostly  in  Michigan,  forty  miles  west  of 
Lake  Michigan  along  the  Menominee  River,  near  the  boundary 
between  Michigan  and  Wisconsin. 


Jasper  Slates 
gJSSotf 

Fig.    29. — Section    through    the    Cyclops    an    Norway    mines    in    the    Menominee    iron 
region,    Michigan.       North    is   to    the    right.        (Fulton.) 

Ores :   soft  hematites  of  Bessemer  and  non-Bessemer  quality,  con- 
taining 60%  to  67%  iron. 

b.  The  Marquette  range,30  Michigan,  is  best  developed  near  the  towns 

of  Marquette  and  Ishpeming. 

Ores :    magnetites,  and  hard  and  soft  hematites,  mostly  of  Besse- 
mer quality. 

Analysis  gives  68.4%  metallic  iron,  .053  phosphorus,  2.07  silica. 
Geological  relations  and  occurrence. 
Lower  Huronian  much  folded  and  contains  many  dikes. 

c.  The    Penokee-Gogebic    range,31    (called    the    Gogebic    range),    passes 

from  Wisconsin  into  Michigan  at  the  town  of  Ironwood. 
Ores :    soft  hematites  of  high  grade  Bessemer  quality ;  60  to  66  per 
cent    iron. 


MJ.   E.   Spurr.  —  The   original   source   of  the   Lake    Superior   iron   ores.   American   Geolo- 

gist,   XXIX,    335-349.      Minneapolis,    1902. 
C.  K.  Leith.  —  Genesis  of  Lake  Superior  iron  ores.     Economic  Geology,  I,  47-66.     1906. 

MW.  S.  Bayley.  —  The  Menominee  iron-bearing  district  of  Michigan.  Monograph 
XLVI,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1904. 

*°C.  R.  Van  Rise  and  W.  S.  Bayley.  —  Preliminary  report  on  the  Marquette  iron-bearing 
district  of  Michigan.  15th  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  1893-94,  477-650. 
Washington,  1895. 


C.  R.  Va 
trict 
1897. 


.  Van  Hise,  W.  S.  Bayley  and  H.  L.  Smyth.  —  The  Marquette  iron-bearing  dis- 
trict of  Michigan.  Monograph  XXVIII,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington, 
1897. 

J.   M.   Clements  and   H.    L.    Smyth.  —  The   Crystal   Falls   iron-bearing  district   of  Mich- 

igan.    Monograph  XXXVI,  U.   S.   Geological   Survey.     Washington,    1899. 
"R.    D.   Ir 


logical   Survey.     Washingto 

ing  and   C.    R.    Van  Hise.—  The   Penokee   iron-bearing   series.      Monograph 
XIX,   U.   S.   Geological   Survey.     Washington,   1892.      (Bibliography.) 
C.    R.    Van    Hise.  —  The    iron    ores    of    the    Penokee-Gogebic    series    of    Michigan    and 
Wisconsin.     American  Journal  of  Science,  CXXXVII,  32-48.     New  Haven,   1889. 


75 


7fi 


IRON. 


The  ore  bodies  are  concentrated  in  the  apices  of  V-shaped  troughs 
formed  by  southward  dipping  dikes  cutting  northward  dipping 
impervious  strata.  They  are  intimately  associated  with  cherts, 
which  were  originally  heavily  charged  with  carbonate  ore. 
These  carbonate  ores  underwent  chemical  change,  and  by  solu- 
tion and  metasomatic  replacement  were  concentrated  in  the 
troughs  (Van  Hise). 
d.  The  Baraboo  range31'  is  in  Columbia  county,  in  the  center  of  the 

southern  half  of  Wisconsin. 

Ore   occurs   in    synclinal    fold  of   Freedom    formation   with    slates, 
cherts,  and  dolomites. 


Fig.    30. — A    generalized    north-south    section    across    the    Baraboo    iron    district. 
(Wiedman.) 

e.  The  Vermillion  range33  at  Vermillion  Lake  is  in  northeast  Minnesota, 

near  the  Canadian  border. 

Tower  and   Ely   are   the   principal   mining  towns. 

Ores :  mostly  hard  hematites  of  Bessemer  and  non-Bessemer  qual- 
ity, with  from  60  to  67  per  cent  of  iron.  They  are  closely 
associated  with  schists,  "jaspillites,"  and  quartzites.  The  ore 
masses  are  in  sedimentary  rocks,  and  were  probably  concen- 
trated by  metasomatic  replacement. 

f.  The  Mesabi  range34  is  southwest  of  the  Vermillion  range  in  Minne- 

sota.    Its  first  ore  shipments  of  importance  were  made  in  1893. 


12O.    Rohn. — The    Baraboo    iron    range.       Engineering    and    Mining    Journal,    LXXVI, 

615-617.      New    York,    1903. 

N.  H.  Winchell.— The  Baraboo  iron  ore.  American  Geologist,  XXXIV,  242-253. 
Minneapolis,  1904. 

UN.  H.  Winchell. — The  iron  range  of  Vermilion  Lake.  15th  ann.  rep.  Geology  and 
Natural  History  Survey  of  Minnesota  for  1886,  217  et  seq.  St.  Paul,  1887. 

N.  H.  Winchell  and  H.  V.  Winchell.— The  iron  ores  of  Minnesota.  Bui.  VI,  Minne- 
sota Geological  Survey.  Minneapolis,  1891. 

J.  M.  Clements. — The  Vermilion  iron-bearing  district  of  Minnesota.  Monograph 
XLV,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1903. 

MU.    S.    Grant. — Sketch    of   the   geology  •  of   the   eastern   end   of   the    Mesabi    iron   range 
in   Minnesota.      Engineer's   Year   Book,   University   of   Minnesota,   49-62.      1898. 
C.    K.    Leith. — The    Mesabi    iron-bearing    district    of    Minnesota.      Monograph '  XLIII, 
U.    S.    Geological    Survey.      Washington,    1903. 


77 


78 


IRON. 


}f.ii^;%?K§?^ 

XV\  'C','iV-c>/'i'k1i-!"c-'/ 


Fig.   31. — Section  showing  the  usual  occurrence  of  iron  ores  in  the  Mesabi  range.       It 
is   below   the   drift   and    rests   upon  quartzite.       (Winchell.) 

Ores:  mostly  soft  hematites  of  Bessemer  quality.  The  associated 
rocks  are  slates,  quartzites,  and  jasper,  all  covered  by  glacial 
debris.  The  ore  masses  are  probably  the  result  of  metasomatic 
replacement. 

g.  The  Cayuna  range  in  Minnesota.35 

Comparative    importance    of   the    districts    in   the    Lake    Superior    region. 
The   influence  of  transportation    facilities.38 

///.  The  western  region. 

This  region  includes  the  iron  producing  states  west  of  the  Missouri  river. 

Missouri  :OT  two  localities  have  been  of  considerable  importance. 

a.  Iron  Mountain :    hard  hematite  ores  about  a  porphyry  hill. 

Iron  boulders :    residuary  deposit,  from  the  weathering  of  porphyry. 

b.  Pilot  Knob :   ore  hard  specular  hematite,  in  two  beds,  associated  with 

"slate"  and  porphyry  sheets. 

These  ores  are  thought  by  Nason  to  be  of  sedimentary  origin. 
The  Cherry  Valley  ore  bank. 
Other  western  iron  regions : 

Colorado38  is  the  most  important  producer. 

**C.  K.  Leith. — The  geology  of  the  Cuyuna  iron  range,   Minn.   Economic  Geology,   II, 
145-152.    1907. 

MW.    Fawcett. — The    new    era    in    lake    shipping.       Engineering    and    Mining    Journal, 
LXIX,  467-468.     New   York,   1900. 

>7Frank   L.    Nason. — A   report   on    the    iron    ores   of    Missouri.      Geological    Survey    of 

Missouri,    1892,    II.      Jefferson    City,    1892. 
Raphael   Purnpelly. — Preliminary  report  on  the   iron   ores  and   coal   fields.    Geological 

Survey  of  Missouri,   1872,   1-214.     New  York,   1873. 

MRegis  Chauvenet.- — The  iron  resources  of  Colorado.     Trans.   Amer.   Inst.   Min.   Eng., 
XVIII,   266-273.      New   York,    1890. 


SO 


IRON. 


Texas.39 
Iowa.40 

Near  Waukon,  Iowa,  in  the  Trenton  formation.    Ore  is  a  secondary 

deposit  partially  and  "bog  iron  ore"  principally. 
Wyoming.41 

Large    lenticular   masses   of   red   hematite   in   slate. 
Utah.42 

Magnetite  and  hematite  in  a  belt  twenty  miles  long  at  the  contact 

of  carboniferous   limestone  and   eruptive   miocene  andesites. 
Washington.43 

The  ores  are  primarily  of  sedimentary  nature,  were  laid  down  on 
serpentines,  are  overlain  by  eocene  sandstone,  and  have  been 
considerably   altered. 
New  Mexico.44 

At    Rio    Grande    are    important   deposits,    but    they   are    far    from 

transportation. 

The  ore  is  hematite  along  the  sides  of  dikes  which  cut  carboniferous 
limestones.     It  has  been  formed  by  the  rilling  of  the  shattered 
zone  along  the  dikes  by  the  settling  of  iron  held  in  solution 
and  derived   from  the  weathered  country  rock. 
Oregon. 

There  is  a  deposit  at  Oswego. 


Fig.    32. — Section   through    the   Prosser   iron   mine   near    Oswego,    Oregon.       (Putnam.) 

'•R.  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jr. — The  iron  ores  of  East  Texas.     First  ann.  rep.   Geological  Sur- 
vey  of    Texas    for    1889,    65-86.      Austin,    1890. 

E.    T.    Dumble. — The    iron    ores    of    East    Texas.    Engineering    and    Mining    Journal, 
LXXII,   104.     New  York,   1901. 

40S.   W.   Beyer. — Iowa's  iron  mine.     Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,   LXXIII,  275-6. 
New  York,   1902. 

41H.    M.    Chance. — The   iron    mines   of   Hartville,   Wyoming.    Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 
Eng.,   XXX,   987-1003.     New  York,    1901. 

*-C.   K.   Leith   and  E.   C.   Harder. — The   iron  ores  of  the   Iron    Springs  district,   Utah. 
Bui.    338,    U.    S.    Geological    Survey.      Washington,    1908. 

43G.  O.  Smith  and  Bailey  Willis.— The  Clealum  iron-ores,  Washington.      Trans.  Amer. 
Inst.   Min.   Eng.,   XXX,   356-366.     New  York,    1901. 

44C.   R.   Keyes. — Iron  deposits  of  the  Chupadera  mesa.     Engineering  and  Mining   Jour- 
nal,  LXXVIII,   632.      New   York,    1904. 

Lindgren,    Graton,    and    Gordon. — The    ore    deposits    of    New    Mexico.      Professional 
paper   No.   68,   U.    S.   Geological   Survey.    Washington,    1910. 


81 


Relative  importance  of  the  iron  regions  of  the  United  States : 
1.  Lake  Superior  region;    2.  Appalachian  region;    3.  Western  region. 
The  principal  iron  ore  producing  states  in  the  order  of  their  importance 
in  1907  were :  Minnesota,  Michigan,  Alabama,  New  York,  Wiscon- 
sin, Pennsylvania,  and  Tennessee. 


m 


,  T    PIG  IRON 
1  THE  PRODUCTION  -OF 

PI6  IRON  BY  THE.  PRIN- 
CIPAL PRODUCING 

3    STATES  SINCE  I872. 


~:i~ 


1 


Fig.   33. — Chart  showing  the  production  of  pig  iron  by  states  since   1872. 


IRON. 


83 


;5  co  £  -3 


THE  PRODUCTION  OF  PIG  IRON 


BY  THE  PRINCIPAL   PRODUCING 


r.rrr    _:    COUNTRIES   OF  THE  WORLD 

1   SINCE  1869. 


Fig.    34. 


84  GOLD. 

GOLD1 

Gold  is  a  soft,  dull  yellow  metal  having  a  specific  gravity  of  19.33  when 
pure. 

Uses. 

Gold  has  been  used  from  the  earliest  times  for  coins  and 'for  ornamental 

purposes. 

Coinage;  the  stability  in  value  of  gold  coin.2 
Ornamental  purposes;   foil   for  gilding,  dentistry,  medicine,  photography. 

Ores. 

Most  of  the  gold  mined  is  found  as  native  gold;  it  is  often  alloyed  with 
silver  and  other  metals.     California  gold  contains  from  11  to  13  per 
cent  of  silver;  Australian  gold  contains  5  per  cent  of  silver. 
The  other  gold  bearing  minerals   are : 

Sylvanite   (Te  62.1,  Au  24.5,  Ag  14.4,  variable). 

Xagyagite  (one  analysis,  Te  30.52,  S  8.07,  Pb  50.78.  Au  9.11  +  Ag  and 
Cu.    Other  analyses  yield:  Te  15.11  up,  S  to  10.76,  Pb  to  57.16,  Au 
7.41   to   12.75. 
Petzite  (Au  25.5,  Ag  42.00,  Te  32.58,  variable). 

Modes  of  Occurrence  and  Association3 
Geological  distribution.* 
Gold  is   found : 

1.  In  veins,  as  free  gold,  and  in  combination. 
The  gangue  is  generally  quartz;  exceptions.5 

'A.  Liversidge. — Contributions  to  the  bibliography  of  gold.  Proc.  Austral.  Assoc.  Adv. 

Sci.,    VI,   240-256.      Sydney    (.1896).      (This   contains   titles   not   given   in    Locke's 

Gold.) 

A.    G.    Locke. — Gold.      London,    1882.       (Bibliography.) 
A.    de   Foville. — La   geographic   de   1'or.      Ann.   de   Geographic,    6me   Annee,    193-211. 

Paris,    1897. 

Cumenge  et  Robellaz. — L'or  dans  la  nature.     Paris,   1898. 
L.    de    Launay. — The    world's    gold:    its    geology,    extraction,    and    political    economy. 

New  York,    1907. 
Alex.    Del   Mar. — The   history   of  the   precious   metals    from   the   earliest   times   to   the 

present  day.  2nd  ed.    xxii  +  480.     New   York,   1902. 

"W.  R.  Ingalls. — Has  the  value  of  gold  depreciated?     Engineering  and  Mining  Journal, 
LXXXVI,   1037-1042.     New  York,   1908. 

*G.  P.  Merrill. — Gold  and  its  associations.     Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXXIX, 
992-993.     New  York,   1905. 

4J.  M.  Maclaren. — Gold:  its  geological  occurrence  and  geographical  distribution.  687  + 
xxiii.      London,    1908. 

6\V.  P.    Blake. — Gold  in   granite  and  plutonic  rocks.     Trans.     Amer.     Inst.    Min.   Eng., 

XXVI,   290-298.      New   York,    1897. 

G.   P.   Merrill. — An  occurrence  of  free  gold  in  granite. — Amer.    Journal   of   Science, 
CLI,   309-311.      New  Haven,    1896. 


85 


86  GOLD. 

Mirjing  vein  deposits. 
Milling,6  concentrating. 

The  chlorination  process  is  based  upon  the  "property  of  chlorine  gas 
to  transform  metallic  gold  into  soluble  chloride  of  gold."  Gold 
must  be  metallic.7  Sulphides  must  be  roasted  and  all  other 
metals  must  be  converted  to  oxides. 

The  cyanide  process  is  based  upon  the  principle  that  a  dilute  solution 
of  cyanide  of  potassium  dissolves  gold  and  silver." 

2.  In  stream  or  placer  deposits,  as  flakes,  grains,  or  nuggets. 
Origin  of  placer  gold." 

Beach  deposits ;  stream  deposits. 
Geographic  changes  subsequent  to  their  deposition. 
The  high  Eocene  terrace  gravels  of  the  Sierras.10 
Rich  placers  are  not  necessarily  derived  from  rich  veins. 
The  origin   of  nuggets.11 

The  largest  nugget  ever  found  in  California  came  from  the  Morgan 
mine,  Calaveras  county ;  it  weighed  195  pounds,  and  was  worth 
$43,534. 
Methods  of  mining  placer  deposits. 

Panning,  slucing,  booming,  dredging,12  amalgamation. 

Dry   placers.13 

The  deep  leads  of  Victoria.11 

6E.    B.    Preston.— California   gold   mill   practices.      Bulletin   6,    California    State    Mining 
Bureau.      Sacramento,    1895. 

7T.    K.    Rose. — The    extraction    of    gold    by    chemical    methods.       Nature,    LV,    448-9. 
London,    1897. 

"A.     Scheidel. — The    cyanide    process.     Bulletin    5,    California     State    Mining    Bureau. 

Sacramento,    1894.      (Reprinted,    London,    1895.) 

James  Park. — The  cyanide  process  of  gold  extraction.     Auckland,   New  Zealand.    Mel- 
bourne,   1896. 
C.   H.    Fulton. — The   cyanide   process   in   the    Black  Hills   of   Dakota.      Bui.    5,    South 

Dakota   School   of   Mines.      Rapid   City,    1902. 

*H.    L.    Smyth. — The    origin    and    classification    of    placers. — Engineering    and    Mining 
Journal,  LXXIX,  1045-1046;   1179-1180;   1228-1230.      New  York,   1905. 

10W.    Lindgren. — The    age    of    the    auriferous   gravels    of    the    Sierra    Nevada.      Journal 
of  Geology,   IV,  881.     Chicago,   1896. 

"T.  J.  Henley. — Famous  gold  nuggets  of  the  world.     New   York,   1900. 

"Aug.    J.    Bowie,    Jr.— Dredging    for    gold    in    southern    river    beds.      Engineering    and 

Mining  Journal,   LXIII,   211-212.      New   York,    1897. 
Al>g'  York3°Wie'    Jr-~A    Practical    treatise   on    hydraulic    mining    in    California.      New 

J.   B.  Jacquet.—Notes  on  gold  dredging.     Mineral  Resources   (of  New  South  Wales), 

no.    3.      Sydney,    1898. 
Recen1tg«gold   dredges.      Engineering   and    Mining   Journal,    LXYI,    728-9.      New    York, 

"H.   A     Mather.— The   problem  of  the   dry  placers.      Engineering   and   Mining   Journal, 
LXX\  I,  314-315.     New  York,    1903. 

"The  deep  beds  of  Victoria.     Mining  Magazine,   XI,    139-143.     Jan.-Feb.,    1905. 


87 


88  GOLD. 

Distribution. 

Gold  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  elements;  it  is  found  in  rocks 

of  all  ages  and  kinds,  and  is  even  a  constituent  of  sea  water.15 
Gold  is  found  on  the  sea  bottom.18 
Gold  sometimes  occurs  in  shale  in  minute  quantities." 

THE   PRINCIPAL   GOLD   PRODUCING   COUNTRIES. 

1898.  1908. 

1.  South  Africa $78,070,761 $145,819,016 

2.  United  States   65,082,430 96,313,256 

3.  Australasia    62,294,481 72,509,200 

4.  Russia   24,734,418 30,944,561 

5.  Mexico    8,236,720 24,518,548 

6.  Rhodesia    (Africa)...       433,682 12,276,394 

7.  British  India  7,765,807 10,424,067 

8.  Canada    13,700,000 9,559,274 

9.  West  Coast  (Africa) .        720,248 5,773,544 

10.  China    6,641,190 5,165,000 

11.  Colombia    (18) 3,700,000 3,514,073 

12.  Japan    790,826 3,203,850 

13.  Chile    1,240,000 3,100,000 

14.  Central    America.....        505,096 2,273,875 

15.  Hungary     1,839,536 2,273,815 

South  African  Deposits.20 

Though   long  known,   the    gold   deposits   of   the    Transvaal   have   been 
worked  only  since  1886.21 

"A.    Liversidge. — Gold   and   silver   in    sea   water.      Jour,    and    Proc.    Royal    Society   of 
New   South   Wales,   XXIX,    335-349;    350-366.      Sydney,    1896. 

"Luther  Wagoner. — The  presence   of  gold   and   silver   in   deep   sea   dredgings.     Trans. 
Amer.   Inst.   Min.   Eng.,   XXXVIII,  704-705.     New  York,    1908. 

17W.  Lindgren. — Tests  for  gold  and  silver  in  the  shales  of  western  Kansas.     Bui.  202, 

U.    S.    Geological    Survey.      Washington,    1902. 
18M.  A.  Damangeon. — L'industrie  aurifere  en  Colombie.      231  pages.      Paris,  1907. 

F.    F.    Sharpless. — Placer   mining    in    Antioquia,    Colombia.      Engineering   and    Mining 
Journal,  LXXIX,   994.      New   York,    1905. 

"S.  J.  Truscott. — The  mining  and  occurrence  of  gold  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies.     En- 
gineering and  Mining  Journal,  LXXIV,  444-445;    479-481.     New  York,  1902. 

"S.  Czyszkowski. — The  deposition  of  gold  in  South  Africa.     American  Geologist,   XVII, 
306-323.     Minneapolis,    1896. 

F.  H.  Hatch  and  J.  A.  Chalmers. — The  gold  mines  of  the  Rand.     306.     London  and 

New  York,   1895. 

Theo.   Reunert. — Diamonds  and  gold  in  South   Africa.     Johannesburg.    1893. 
L.    de    Launay. — The    Witwatersrand    gold    field    and    its    working.      Engineering    and 

Mining   Journal,    LXIII,    631-632;    659-661.      New    York,    1897. 
S.  J.  Truscott. — The  Witwatersrand  gold  fields,  banket  and  mining  practice.     London 

and  New  York,   1907. 
L.   de   Launay. — Les   mines   d'or   du   Transvaal.     Paris,    1896. 

G.  F.    Becker. — Auriferous    conglomerate    of    the    Transvaal.    American    Journal    of 

Science,  V,   193-208.     New  Haven,   1898. 

21J.  H.  Hammond  and  T.  H.   Leggett.— Gold  mining  in  the  Transvaal,   South   Africa. 
Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXXI,  817-855.  New  York,   1902. 


89 


90 


GOLD. 


The  Rand.22     The  gold  yield  of  the  Witwatersrand  fields  increased  from 

about  $400,000  in  1887  to  $145.819,016  in  1908. 
Gold  in  quartz  conglomerate  beds,  occasionally  broken  by   faults  and 

dikes.23 
Simplicity  of  geologic  structure  as  compared  with  other  gold  fields,  to 

which  is  due  the  certainty  of  results. 


Fig.    35. — Section    through    shafts    in    the    Rand    gold    field    showing   the    structure 
continuation  of  the  beds  at  great  depths.       (Hatch   and  Chalmers.) 


Fig.  36. — Section  of  the  Glencairn 
reefs   or  bedded 


property  in  the   Rand,  showing  portions  of  the   four 
leposits.      (Hatch   and   Chalmers.) 


2-R.  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jr. — The  Witwatersrand  gold  region,  Transvaal,  South  Africa,  as 
seen  in  recent  mining  developments.  Journal  of  Geology,  XV,  7.35-749.  Chi- 
cago, 1907. 

J.    \V,    Gregory. — The    origin   of   the   gold   of   the    Rand   goldfield.    Economic   Geology, 
IV,    118-129.      1909. 

F.  Hellmann.— Economic   Geology,    IV,   251-255.      1909. 

G.  A.   Denny. — Economic  Geology,   IV,  470-485.      1909. 

2SL.  de  Launay. — Sur  les  caracteres  geologiques  des  conglomerats  auriferes  du  Wit- 
watersrand. Comptes  Rendus,  CXXII,  260-262;  343-346.  Paris,  1896. 


91 


92  GOLD. 

. Su.r£oc«    of      the     Ground 


Fig.    37. — Section    across    the    reefs    of    the    Rand    showing    the    faulting. 
(Hatch   and   Chalmers.) 

Theories  regarding  the  origin  of  the  gold. 

I.  Mechanical  accumulations  in  the  gravels. 
II.  Introduction  by  solution. 

Australasian  Gold  Fields.2* 

The  gold  producing  colonies  in  the  order  of  output. 
Victoria.25 

Placer  gold   is   found   in   the   Tertiary   and  Quaternary   gravels   at 
Ballarat   and   Bendigo. 

New  Zealand.28 

Lode   deposits   occur  at  Aukland. 
Fissure  veins  cut  Tertiary  eruptives  near  craters. 
At  Otago  there  are  fissure  veins  and  lenses  in  Paleozoic  mica  schist. 
Placers  of  Recent,  Pleistocene,  Pliocene  and  Miocene  ages  produce 
three-fourths  of  the  output  of  New  Zealand. 

Z4John   R.   Don. — The   genesis  of  certain   auriferous   lodes.     Trans.     Amer.    Inst.    Min. 

Eng.,   XXVII,    564-668;    993-1003.      New   York,    1897. 
K.    Schmeisser. — The   gold   fields   of   Australasia.    London,    1898. 
H.    C.    Hoover. — Mining    and    milling    gold    ores    in    western    Australia.      Engineering 

and  Mining  Journal,   LXVI,   725-726.     New   York,    1898. 
L.  Babu. — Les  mines  d'or  de  1'Australie.     Annales  des  Mines,  9me  ser.   IX,  315-395. 

Paris,    1896. 
L.  Gascuel. — Notes  sur  les  champs  d'or  de  Coolgardie.  Annales  des  Mines,  9me  ser., 

XV,    205-231.      Paris,     1899. 

*W.    Lindgren. — Mining    the   Australian    deep   leads.    Mining    Magazine,    XI,    139-143. 
1905. 

**L.   de  Launay. — Les   richesses   minerales  de   la   Nouvelle   Zelande.      Ann.    des   Mines, 

9me  ser.,   V,    523-554.      Paris,    1894.      (Bibliography.) 
James  Park.— The  geology  of  New  Zealand.     334-378.     Melbourne  and  London,  1910. 


93 


94  GOLD. 

New  South  Wales.27 

The  principal  deposits  are  fissure  veins  and  lodes  in  Silurian  sedi- 
ments and  later  igneous  rocks. 

Queensland,  West  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  South  Australia. 
Veins  and  lodes  are  called  "reefs." 
"Saddle  reefs"  in  the  Bendigo  fields  of  Victoria  and  in  the  Har- 

greaves  fields  of  New   South   Wales.28 
Gold  in  India.29 
Recent  and  Pleistocene  gravels  of  India  have  yielded  placer  gold  for 

centuries. 
No  lodes  or  veins  have  been  discovered. 


Fig.  38. — Section  across  anticlinal  and  synclinal  "saddle  reefs"  at  Tambaroora,  N.   S. 
Wales.       (Watt.) 


•« 


Fig.   39. — Section  of  a  "saddle  reef"  or  lode,  New  Chum  Consolidated  mine,   Bendigo 
gold  field,  Victoria,  Australia.       (Rickard.) 

"E.  F.  Pittman. — The  mineral  resources  of  New  South  Wales.     1-74.     Sydney,   1901. 

MT.    A.    Rickard. — The    saddle    reefs    of    Bendigo.      Engineering    and    Mining    Journal, 

LXXIII,  440-443.     New  York,   1902. 
MV.   Ball. — On  the  mode  of  occurrence   and  distribution  of  gold  in  India.     Journal   of 

the  Royal  Geological  Society  of  Ireland,  V,  258-280.     Edinburgh,    1880. 

Ibid,    VI,    201-206.      1881. 


95 


GOLD. 


Fig.    40. — Section    through    the    Bendigo    gold    fields,    Victoria,    Australia,    showing    the 
saddle  reefs.       (Rickard.) 

Gold  in  Russia30 
There  are  gold-bearing  post-Tertiary  gravels  on  the  south  side  of  the 

Ural  Mountains  in  Russia. 
Gold  in  Canada.31 
Gold  regions  of  the  United  States. 
The  Appalachian  region. 

Gold  was  first  discovered  in  the  United  States  in  1799  in  North  Carolina. 

Between  1843  and  1848  the  annual  production  was  near  $2,000,000. 

Gold  occurs   in  quartz  veins,  in  slates,  gneiss,  and  schists,  and  in  the 

residual  clays  derived  from  these  rocks.     Rocks  Archean  or  lowest 

Paleozoic. 

Gold  mined  in  Virginia,  North  Carolina,32  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia.33 

P.   Lake.— Origin   of  gold  in  India.     Science,  XXII,   121.     New   York,'   1893. 

^E.     D.     Levat. — The    gold     placers     of     Siberia.       Engineering    and     Mining     Tournal, 

LXIII,   90.      New   York,    1897. 
A.  Keppen. — The  industries  of  Russia.     IV,  Mining  and  Metallurgy.     St.  Petersburg, 

1893. 
H.  B.  C.  Nitze. — The  gold  placers  of  the  Eastern  Oural  Mts.     Russia.      Engineering 

and   Mining  Journal,   LXVI,  305-306.     New  York,    1898. 

SIE.  R.  Faribault. — The  gold  measures  of  Novia  Scotia.     Ottawa,   1899. 

A  list  of  the  publications  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada  on  gold  is  given 
in  the  "General  Index  to  the  Reports  of  Progress,  1863-1884"  at  pages  189-191, 
1900;  a  later  list  is  given  in  the  General  Index  to  Reports  1885-1906,  pages 
365-368.  Ottawa,  1908. 

3=H.  B.  C.  Nitze  and  H.  A.  J.  Wilkens. — Gold  mining  in  North  Carolina  and  adjacent 
south  Appalachian  regions.  Bulletin  10,  Geological  Survey  of  North  Carolina. 
Raleigh,  1897. 

"Yeates,   McCallie  and   King.— Gold  deposits  of  Georgia.      Bulletin  4,   Geological   Sur- 
vey of  Georgia,  Atlanta,    1896. 
William    Tatham. — Gold    mining    in    Georgia.      Jour.       Franklin    Institute,     CXLVI, 

19-26.      Philadelphia,    1898. 
S.   P.   Jones. — Second   report   on   the   gold   deposits   of   Georgia.      Bui.    19,   Geological 

Survey   of   Georgia.      Atlanta,    1909. 

E.    C.    Eckel. — The    Dahlonega    gold    district    of    Georgia.       Engineering    and    Mining 
Journal,   LXXV,   219-220.      New   York,    1903. 


1)7 


98 


GOLD. 


The  Rocky  Mountain,  District. 
Colorado.34 

Gilpin  county:  gold  with  pyrites  in  fissure  veins  through  gneiss. 
Boulder  county :   gold  as   telluride  ores,   in   small   veins,  along  fault 

planes,  in  granite  or  geniss,  associated  with  porphyry. 
Clear  Creek  county :  gold  in  fissure  veins  through  granite  rocks. 
Lake  county:  the  Leadville  district  is  in  this  county;  the  gold  is  in 
limestone  associated  with  porphyry,  in  porphyry   dikes,  in  veins 
through  granite,  and  in  placers. 


N.E. 


Fig.  41.— Section  in  the  Victor,  Smuggler 
Lee,    and    Buena    Vista    mines,    show- 
ing   the    parallel    ore-bodies,     (a.) 
(Penrose.) 


Fig.    42. — Section    showing    the    iorm    of 
the  ore-body  in  the  Victor,  Smuggler 
Lee,     and     Buena     Vista     mines, 
Cripple    Creek    district,  Colo- 
rado.     (Penrose.) 


Fig.    43. — Section   showing    the    forms    of 

the    vein    in    the    Blue    Bird    mine, 

Cripple    Creek   district.      The   ore 

is    shown    black;    b    is    the 

country    rock 

(Penrose.) 


ig.     44.— Section     in     the    Elkton    mine 

Cripple      Creek      district,      Colorado, 

showing   the    relation    of   the  vein 

a   to   the   dike   b   and   to   the 

country    rock    c. 

(Penrose.) 


"Arthur  Lakes.— Geology  of  Colorado  and  western  ore  deposits.     Denver,   1893. 


99 


100 


GOLD. 


Fig.  45.  —  Vertical  section  showing  the  forking  of  the  Pike's  Peak  vein,  Cripple   Creek 
district,   Colorado.       (Penrose.) 

"'  '  */*  °  :'  '-  -*        *" 


~  *+  -  -  * 

Fig.    46.  —  Horizontal    section    in    the    Elkton    mine,    Cripple    Creek    district,    Colorado, 

showing  the  relation  of  the  vein   o   to  the  dike  b  and  to  the 

country   rock   c.       (Penrose.) 

Teller  county  :  the  Cripple  Creek  region  ;25  ore  native  gold  and  tellu- 
rides  in  fissures  and  associated  with  dikes.  The  country  rocks  are 
eruptives. 

San   Miguel  county  :   Telluride  district.88     Fissures   in  eruptive   rocks 

S5W.  Cross  and  R.  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jr.  —  Geology  and  mining  industries  of  the  Cripple 
Creek  district,  Colorado.  Sixteenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt. 
II,  1-209.  Washington,  1895. 

W.  Lindgren  and  F.  L.  Ransome.—  Geology  and  gold  deposits  of  the  Cripple  Creek 
District,  Colorado.  Professional  Paper  54,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Wash- 
ington, 1906.  ,.  • 


T.    A.     Rickard.  —  The    lodes     of    Cripple     Creek. 

XXXIII,    578-618.      New   York,    1903. 
MC.    W.    Purington.  —  Preliminary    report    on    the    mini 

hteenth   ann.    rep 
Washington,    1898. 


Trans.     Amer.     Inst.     Min.     Eng. 
dustries    of    the    Telluride 


ry    report    on    te    mnng     n 

quadrangle,    Colorado.      Eighteenth   ann.    rep.    U.    S.    Geological    Survey,    pt.    Ill, 
751-848. 


101 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORW 
RIVERSIDE 


102 


GOLD. 


of  late  Tertiary  age  have  been  filled  with  native  gold  and  gold 

telluride  by  precipitation  from   solutions. 
Empire,    Silver    Plume,    and    Georgetown    districts.37     East   and   west 

fissures  in  Paleozoic  granite  have  been  filled  with  sphalerite  and 

crossed  by  north  and  south  fissures  which  are  filled  with  galena, 

pyrite,  and  gold. 
Aspen  district.38    Solutions  have  deposited  rich  sulphides  along  fissures, 

faults,  and  fault  zones  of  post-Cretaceous  age  in  Carboniferous 

sedimentary  rocks.     Silver  is  the  principal  product. 
Wyoming  and  South  Dakota :  the  Black  Hills  region. 

Gold  in  schists,  in  Cambrian  sandstones,  in  segregation  veins,  and  in 

placers  of  Pleistocene  age. 

Montana. 

Silver  Bow  county :  gold  in  placers  near  Butte. 
Deer  Lodge  county:  gold  in  placers  and  quartz  veins;  also  in  granite, 

where  silver  in  large  quantities  is  often  associated  with  it. 
Lewis  and  Clarke  county:  gold  in  placers,  near  Helena,  and  in  quartz 

veins  through  granite  and  slate. 

Fergus  county :  gold  chiefly  in  deposits  associated  with  igneous  rocks.39 
Cascade  county  :40    silver,  lead,  copper  sulphides  carrying  gold,  occur 

along  northeast-southwest  fissures  which  cut  Archean  gneiss,  schist, 

and  later  igneous  dikes. 


Fig.    47. — Diagrammatic    section    showing    the    contact   of   porphyry    and    limestone   and 

the  zone  of  ore  deposition,   Maginnis  mine,  Judith  Mountains, 

Montana.       (Weed  and  Pirsson.) 

*TJ.  E.  Spurr,  G.  H.  Carrey  and  S.  H.  Ball. — Economic  geology  of  the  Georgetown 
quadrangle,  and  Empire  district,  Colorado.  Professional  Paper  63,  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1908. 

3SJ.  E.  Spurr. — Geology  of  the  Aspen  mining  district,  Colorado.  Monograph,  XXXI, 
U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1898. 

MW.  H.  Weed  and  L.  V.  Pirsson. — Geology  and  mineral  resources  of  the  Judith 
mountains  of  Montana.  Eighteenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  Ill, 
437-616.  Washington,  1898. 

4()W.  H.  Weed.— Notes  on  the  ore  deposits  of  the  Little  Belt  Mts.,  Montana.  20th 
ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  Ill,  401-446.  Washington,  1900. 


103 


104 


GOLD. 


Jefferson  county:  the  Elkhorn  mine  and  district.41 
Idaho.42 

Boise  county:  placers  developed  in   1863. 
Alturas  county:  gold  associated  with  silver  in  quartz  veins. 
Shoshone  county  :43  Coeur  d'Alene   district  has  gold  associated   with 
silver  and  lead  in  fissures  as  veins  and  lodes. 


Fig.    48. — Generalized    sketch    showing    vein    structure    in    the    Coeur    d'Alene    district, 
Idaho.       (Ransome    and    Calkins.) 

The  Great  Basin  Region. 
Utah. 

Salt  Lake  county :  in  Bingham  Canyon  gold  is  associated  with  silver 

in  bedded  quartz  veins. 

Mercur  district:44  in  the  Oquirrh  Range.  Gold  (probably  originally 
deposited  as  telluride)  where  altered  by  weather  occurs  native 
and  as  tellurides,  in  altered  limestones,  mostly  along  the  under 
side  of  thin  intruded  porphyry  sheets,  but  sometimes  in  the  por- 
phyries themselves,  and  in  the  limestones  immediately  above  them. 
The  ores  were  deposited  along  fracture  planes. 

"\Y.  H.  Weed.- — Geology  and  ore  deposits  of  the  Elkhorn  mining  district,  Jefferson 
county,  Montana.  22d  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  II,  399-510. 
Washington,  1901. 

42W.  Lindgren. — The  mining  districts  of  the  Idaho  basin  and  the  Boise  ridge,  Idaho. 
Eighteenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  Ill,  617-719.  Washington, 
1898. 

"F.  L.  Ransome  and  C.  A.  Calkins. — The  geology  and  ore  deposits  of  the  Coeur 
d'Alene  mining  district,  Idaho.  Professional  Paper  62,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 
Washington,  1908. 

W.  Lindgren. — The  gold  and  silver  veins  of  Silver  City,  De  Lamar  and  other 
mining  districts  in  Idaho.  20th  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  Ill, 
65-256.  Washington,  1900. 

"J.  Edward  Spurr. — Economic  geology  of  the  Mercur  mining  district.  Sixteenth  ann. 
rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  II,  343-455. 


105 


106 


The  rocks  of  the  locality  are  Lower  and  Upper  Carboniferous  sand- 
stones and  limestones,  aggregating  12,000  feet  in  thickness; 
they  are  exposed  along  a  low  anticlinal  arch.  (Spurr.) 

Nevada.45 
White  Pine  county :  Egan  Canyon ;  gold  with  silver  occurs  in  quartz 

veins   traversing   slate. 
The   Comstock   lode  :40  gold  and   silver,   in   a  great   quartz   vein,   with 

country   rock  of  diorite  and  diabase.     Ore   in   rich  masses  called 

bonanzas.      Proportion  of  gold  to   silver,  2:3. 
Tonopah  district  :47  the  rocks  are   Tertiary   volcanics.     The  most   im- 


\Lafcr  fftr</€ 

Fig.   49. — Ideal   geologic    section   showi 


Herctfc  ff. 

ng   complicated    structure   at   Tonopah,    Nevada. 
(Spurr.) 


"J.    E.    Spurr. — Genetic    relations    of    the    western    Nevada    ores.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst. 
Min.   Eng.,  XXXVI,   372-402.     New   York,   1906. 

46G.   F.   Becker. — Geology   of  the   Comstock  lode  and  the  Washoe  district.      Monograph 

III,   U.   S.    Geological   Survey.     Washington,    1882. 

E.   Lord. — Comstock  mining  and  miners.      Monograph    IV,    U.    S.    Geological    Survey. 
Washington,   1883. 

•*7J.   E.    Spurr. — Geology   of   the  Tonopah   mining  district,   Nevada.      Professional   Paper 

42,  U.   S.  Geological  Survey,  Washington,    1905. 

J.    E.    Spurr. — Developments    at    Tonopah,    Nevada    during    1904.       Bui.    260,    U.    S. 
Geological    Survey,    140-149.      Washington,    1905. 


107 


108 


GOLD. 


'.-.;«.''*'.'/•' ," ''  ;!!c/^ 


Fig.  50. — Section  showing  the  geology  of  the  Montana-Tonopah  'mine,  Tonopah,  Nevada. 
(Spurr.) 

portant  mineral  veins  are  in  early  andesites.     The  minerals  are 
oxidized  near  the  surface.     Two  other  series  of  veins  occur ;  one 
in  dacite,  and  another  in  rhyolite. 
At  Goldfield*8  native  gold  is  associated  with  a  great  variety  of  sul- 

<6F.    L.    Ransome. — The   geology   and   ore   deposits   of   Goldfield,    Nevada.      Professional 

Paper  66,  U.   S.  Geological  Survey.     Washington,    1909. 

J.  B.  Hastings  and  C.  P.  Berkey. — The  geology  and  petrography  of  the  Goldfield 
mining  district,  Nevada.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXX\7II,  140-159. 
New  York,  1907. 


109 


110  GOLD. 

phides  in  branching  veins  and  rich  irregular  lodes  in  late  Tertiary 
dacite. 
The  ores  are  more  or  less  altered  near  the  surface. 

At  Blair49  crystalline,  auriferous  quartz  occurs  in  lenses  in  metamor- 
phosed slaty  Paleozoic  limestone  and  Tertiary  alaskite. 

At  Bullfrog  quartz  bearing  gold  occurs  along  fault  zones  in  Tertiary 
eruptives  similar  to  those  of  Goldfield  and  Tonopah. 

Other  producing  districts  in  Nevada  are  Searchlight,  Bullfrog,  Man- 
hattan, Ely,  Rhyolite,  and  Kawich. 

The  Pacific  Slope  Region. 
California.50 
Gold  occurs: 
In  quartz  veins  in  slates  of  Devonian  and  Carboniferous  ages,  but 

mostly  in  Triassic  and  Jurassic51  slates  and  schists. 
In  placers  derived  from  the  quartz  veins. 
River  gravels52  are  usually  shallow  and   recent. 
High  gravels. 

Origin  and  age  of  the  high  gravels.58 
Some  of  them  are  covered  by  volcanics  of  Miocene  age. 

*9J.  E.  Spurr. — Ore  deposits  of  the  Silver  Peak  quadrangle,  Nevada.  Professional 
Paper  55,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1906. 

"California  mines  and  minerals.  Published  by  the  California  Miners'  Association. 
San  Francisco,  1899. 

"W.     Lindgren. — Characteristic    features    of    California    gold    quartz    veins.       Bulletin 

of  the  Geological  Society  of  America,  VI,  221-240.      1895. 
H.   W.   Turner. — Gold   ores   of   California.      American   Journal    of    Science,    CXLIX, 

374-379.     New  Haven,   1895. 
W.    Lindgren.— The   gold   quartz   veins   of   Nevada    City   and    Grass   Valley   districts, 

California.       Seventeenth    ann.     rep.    U.     S.     Geological     Survey,    pt.    II,     1-262. 

Washington,   1896. 

62J.  D.  Whitney. — The  auriferous  gravels  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California.  (Cam- 
bridge), 1880. 

J.  Ross  Browne. — Mineral  resources  of  the  United  States  and  Territories  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  Washington,  1868. 

R.  E.  Brown. — Ancient  river  beds  of  the  Forest  Hill  divide.  10th  ann.  rep.  State 
Min.  435-465.  Sacramento,  1890;  also  2nd  Rep.  133-190.  Sacramento,  1882. 

J.  H.  Hammond. — The  auriferous  gravels  of  California.  9th  ann.  rep.  State  Miner- 
alogist for  1889,  105-138.  Sacramento,  1890. 

H.  W.  Turner.— Auriferous  gravels  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  American  Geologist,  XV, 
371-379.  Minneapolis,  1895. 

The  geology  of  the  gold  regions  of  California  is  shown  on  U.  S.  Geological  Sur- 
vey folios:  3,  Placerville;  5,  Sacramento;  11,  Tackson;  15.  Lassen  Peak;  17, 
Marysville;  29,  Nevada  City;  37,  Downieville;  41,  Sonora;  51,  Big  Trees. 

63J.  Le  Conte. — The  old  river  beds  of  California.  American  Journal  of  Science, 
CXIX,  176-190.  New  Haven,  1880. 

W.  H.  Storms. — Ancient  channel  system  of  Calaveras  county.  12th  ann.  rep. 
Cal.  State  Mineralogist,  482-492.  Sacramento,  1894. 

H.  G.  Hanks. — The  deep  auriferous  gravels  and  Table  Mt.,  California.  San  Fran- 
cisco, 1901. 

W.  Lindgren. — The  age  of  the  auriferous  gravels  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  Journal  of 
Geology,  IV,  881-906.  Chicago,  1896. 


Ill 


GOLD. 


Fig.   51. — Cross-section   at   Pearl  s   Hill,    California,   showing   auriferous   gravels  beneath 
lava.       (Whitney.) 

Extent  of  the  California  gold  fields. 

''The  mother  lode."*4  is  112  miles  long,  extending  through  Mariposa, 

Tuolumne,  Calaveras,  Amador,  and  El  Dorado  counties. 
Methods  of  mining. 
Quartz  mining. 
Hydraulic   mining.5'' 

Nine-tenths  of  California's  gold  has  come  from  placer  mines. 
Gravels  workable  by  ordinary  hydraulic  process  are  now 
mostly  exhausted,  and  all  mining  is  quartz  mining,  while  the 
gravels  which  were  not  available  for  ordinary  hydraulic  min- 
ing are  now  being  worked  by  dredges. 
Dredging.56 

Oregon.5' 

Gold  is  found  in  quartz  veins  and  placers,  as  in  California. 
At  Port  Orford  gold  occurs  in  beach  sands. 
Bohemia  region  of  western   Oregon.58 

Quartz  veins  carrying  gold  and  sulphides  occur  in  igneous  rocks  of 
Miocene  age. 

S4H.  W.  Fairbanks. — Geology  of  the  Mother  Lode  gold  belt.  American  Geologist, 
VII,  209-222.  Minneapolis,  1891.  Tenth  ann.  rep.  State  Mineralogist  (of 
California),  23-90.  1890.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXII,  248-250. 
New  York,  1896. 

F.    L.    Ransome. — Geology    of    the    Mother    Lode    district,    Calif.       Folio    63,    U.    S. 
Geological    Survey.      Washington,    1900. 

S5W.  E.  Thorne. — Notes  on  the  cost  of  hydraulic  mining  in  California.  Trans.  Amer. 
Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXXIII,  138-141.  New  York,  1903. 

E.    Doolittle.— Gold    dredging    in    California.      Bui.    36,    California    State    Mining 


•J. 

G. 

N. 
"W. 


dredging 

Bureau.     Sacramento,    1905. 
P.    Grimsley. — Gold   dredging   operations    in    California.      Engineering    and    Mining 

Journal,    LXXI,    823-824.      New    York,     1901;    LXXII,     11    and    40-41.       New 

York,    1901. 
B.   Knox.— Dredging  at  Oroville.     Engineering  and   Mining  Journal,   LXXVI,   318. 

New  York,   1903. 

.    Lindgren. — The   gold   belt   of   the   Blue    Mts.    of    Oregon.      22nd   ann.    rep.    U.    S. 
Geological   Survey,   pt.   II,   551-776.      Washington,    1901. 

S.    Diller.— Bohemia    mining    region    of    western    Oregon.      20th    ann.    rep.    U.    S. 
Geological    Survey,   pt.    Ill,    1-36.     Washington,    1900. 


113 


114  GOLD. 

Washington/'0 

Placer  gold  occurs  in  Pleistocene  gravels  in  the  beds  of  rivers. 
Veins  of  quartz  and  calcite  carrying  free  gold  occur  on  the  sides  of 
dikes  cutting  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  beds. 

The  Soufhu'cst. 
Arizona.*0 

Quartz  veins  cut  Paleozoic  limestones,  granites,  and  porphyry. 
New  Mexico." 

Placer  gold  occurs  in  the  Rio  Grande  river  bottom  at  Apache  Canyon. 
Alaska.62 

Placer  deposits*3  and  quartz  veins. 
Placer  deposits  occur  at  a  great  many  places :    Seward   Peninsula, 

Rampart   region,   Porcupine   river. 
The  Yukon  and  Klondike  region.84 
Cape  Nome  beach  placers.85 
Gulch,  bar,  beach,  tundra,  and  bench  placers. 
The  Juneau  district. 

"I.    C.    Russell. — Geology    of    the    Cascade    Mts.    in    northern    Washington.      20th    ann. 
rep.   U.   S.    Geological   Survey,   pt.    II,   206-210.      Washington,    1900. 

•°T.  H.   Pratt. — Gold   deposits  of  Arizona.     Engineering  and   Mining  Journal,   LXXIII, 

795-796.     New  York,  1902. 

J.  A.    Church.     The  Tombstone,    Arizona,    mining   district.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 
Eng.,   XXXIII,   3-37.      New   York,    1902. 

61Chas.   R.  Keyes. — Geology  of  the  Apache   Canyon  placers,   New  Mexico.     Engineering 

and   Mining   Journal,    LXXVI,    966-967.      New    York,    1903. 

Lindgren,    Graton,    and    Gordon. — The    ore    deposits    of    New    Mexico.       Professional 
Paper    68,    U.    S.    Geological    Survey.      Washington,    1910. 

<=J.    E.    Spurr. — Geology    of    the    Yukon    gold    district,    Alaska.      Eighteenth    ann.    rep. 
U.   S.   Geological   Survey,   pt.   Ill,   87-392.     Washington.    1898. 

G.    F.    Becker. — Reconnaissance    of    the    gold    fields   of    southern    Alaska.      Eighteenth 
ann.   rep.   U.   S.   Geological   Survey,   pt.   Ill,    1-86.     Washington,    1898. 

R.    A.    F.    Penrose,    Jr. — Present   condition    of   gold   mining    in    Arctic    America.      En- 
gineering and  Mining  Journal,  LXXVI,  807-8;  852-3.     New  York,   1903. 
"L.  M.  Prindle. — The  gold  placers  of  Forty  Mile,  Birch  Creek,  and   Fairbanks  regions, 
Alaska.     Bui.   251,   U.   S.   Geological   Survey.     Washington,    1905. 

C.   W.   Purington. — Methods  and   costs  of  gravel   and   placer  mining   in   Alaska.      Bui. 
243,  U.    S.   Geological   Survey.      Washington,    1905. 

•*R.    G.    McConnell.— Preliminary   report   on   the    Klondike    gold    fields,    Yukon    district, 
Alaska.     Geological  Survey  of  Canada,   XII,   16a-52a.     Ottawa,   1902. 

"Ivan  Brostrom. — The  new  gold  fields  at  Cape  Nome,  Alaska.     San  Francisco,   1899. 
F.   C.   Schrader.— The  Cape  Nome  gold  district.     National  Geographic  Magazine,  XI, 

15-23.      Washington,    1900. 

P.  F.  Travers.— Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXVIII,   727.     New  York,   1899. 
J.     P.    Hutchins. — Dredging    beach    gravel     deposits    near    Nome.       Engineering    and 

Mining  Journal,   LXXXIV,    955-961.      New   York,    1907. 
J.    P.     Hutchins. — Dredging    beach     gravel    deposits    near     Nome.       Engineering    and 

Mining  Journal,  LXXXIV,  955-961.     New  York,   1907. 
F.  C.  Schrader  and  A.  H.  Brooks. — Some  notes  on  the  Nome  Gold  region  of  Alaska. 

Trans.  Amer.   Inst.   Min.   Eng.,   XXX,  236-247.     New  York,   1901. 


115 


116 


GOLD. 


TREADWEU.   MINE 


Fig.    52. — Section   through    the   Alaska-Treadwell    mine,   Douglas   Island,    near   Juneau, 
Alaska. 

Effect  of  silver  legislation  on  gold  production. 
The  output  of  the  leading  gold  producing  states : 
Statistics  :w 

MS.   F.  Emmons  and  G.   F.   Becker. — Statistics  and  technology  of  the  precious  metals. 
Tenth   Census,   XIII.     Washington,    1885. 


117 


118 


GOLD. 


25-Mt 


__ 


GOLD.  / 

THE  COMPARATIVE  GOUD     :          / 
PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  / 


PRINCIPAL  STATES  SINCE    1887— y— 

" 


119 


GOLD. 

THE  OOLO  YIEUO  OF  THE  CHIEF  6OUD 

PRODUCING  COUNTRIES  SINCE,  I860. 

AFRICA 

UNITED  STATES 

RUSSIA 

AUSTRALASIA 

ME.XIGO 


Fig.  54. 


120  SILVER. 


SILVER. 

Silver  is  a  rather  soft,  metallic-white  metal  of  10.5   specific  gravity. 

Uses. 

Coinage;  alloys;  tableware;  jewelry;  ornamental  purposes;  photography; 

medicine. 

Ores. 

Native   silver    (usually  an  alloy  with  copper,  gold,   or  bismuth). 
Argentite.     Silver  glance    (Ag,S),    (Ag  87.1,   S   12.9). 
Pyrargyrite.    Ruby  silver  (Ag3  SbS3  or  3  Ag2  SSb2  S,),  (Ag  59.8,  Sb  22.5, 

S  17.7). 
Proustite.      Light  ruby  silver.      (3Ag2S,  As2S3  or  Ago  AsS»),    (Ag  65.5, 

As  15.1,  S   19.4). 
Stephanite.     Brittle  .silver ;   black   silver    (Ags  SbS4   or   5  Ag2S    Sb2S3), 

(Ag  68.5,  Sb  15.3,  S  16.2). 

Cerargyrite.     Horn  silver,  silver  chloride  (Ag    75.3,  Cl  24.7). 
Bromyrite  (Ag  57.4,  Br.  42.6). 

Embolite  (49  per  cent  AgBr  to  51  per  cent  Ag  Cl). 
Argentiferous  galena  (lead  and  silver  in  varying  proportions). 
Argentiferous    tetrahedrite,    or    freibergite,    a    sulphide    of    copper    and 

antimony,  contains  varying  proportions  of  silver. 
Relative  importance  of  the  different  ores. 

Occurrence   and   Association. 
Most  of  the  silver  comes  from  argentiferous  galena,  but  it  is  generally 

accompanied  by  copper  and  gold. 
The  rocks  may  be  either  sedimentary  or   igneous,  and   are  frequently 

much  folded,  faulted,  and  altered  by  igneous  intrusions. 
The  ore  bodies  sometimes  occur  as  veins,  sometimes  as   replacements, 

and  sometimes  as  contact  deposits. 

Distribution. 
Geologic. 

Silver  occurs  in  rocks  of  all  ages. 

Geographic. 

Silver  has  a  very  general  geographic  distribution;  there  are  but  few 
countries  that  do  not  have  it  in  some  quantity. 

In  1908  the  leading  silver  yielding  countries  in  the  order  of  their 
production  were  Mexico,  the  United  States,  and  Canada.  These 
countries  produce  75  per  cent  of  the  world's  output. 


121 


122  SILVER. 

Mexico.1 
Canada. 

Cobalt,2  Ontario,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  silver  mining  districts 

in    the    world. 

The  ores  are  native  silver  and  silver  sulphide,  associated  with  nickel, 
cobalt,  and  copper.  They  originate  in  diabase  dikes  and  are 
precipitated  from  solution  in  veins  along  joints  and  fissures  and 
also  impregnate  Huronian  sedimentaries. 

Australasia,   Peru,8  Bolivia,4   Germany,   Spain,   Japan,   Central  America, 
Africa,  Austria-Hungary,  Colombia,  Chile.5 

Silver  in  the  United  States. 

The  silver  of  the  United  States  comes  almost  entirely  from  the  region 
west   of   the    Mississippi    river.     Colorado,    Montana,    Utah.    Nevada, 
and  Idaho  produced  88  per  cent  of  the  total  output  in  1908. 
Colorado.6 
Leadville.' 


\t'-.''\  Wh*k-  Porphyry      |*gM  1  tin  Mat  trial        I5?xl  Grey  Porphyry 
Lim*st«n*  WMt,  Limestone 


Fig.  55.  —  Section  on  the  "gold  ore  <:hute"  of  Iron  Hill,  Leadville,  Colorado.       (Blow  ) 

1R.    A.    y    Santillan.  —  Bibliography    of    Mexican    geology    and    mining.      Trans.    Amer. 

Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XXXII,   605-680.      New   York,    1902. 
R.     A.     y    Santillan.  —  Bibliografia    geologica    y    minera    de    la     Republica     Mexicana. 

Mexico,   1908. 
2H.   C.  George.  —  The  Nipissing  mine,   Cobalt,  Ontario.     Engineering  and   Mining   Jour- 

nal,   LXXXII,   967-8.      New   York,    1906. 
R.   E.   Hore.  —  Ores  and   rocks  of  the   Cobalt   region.      Canadian   Mining  Journal,   new 

series.   I,   300-301.     Toronto,   1908. 
»A.    D.    Hodges,    Jr.  —  Notes    on  ..........  the    geology    of    the    Cerro    de    Pasco,    Peru. 

Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XVI,  729-753.     New  York,   1888. 
4A.    F.    Wendt.—  The   Potosf,    Bolivia,    silver-district.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng., 

XIX,   74-107.      New   York,   1891. 
•Don   Guillermo    Yunge.  —  Estadfstica   minera   de   Chile   en    1903.      I,    22-24.      Santiago, 

1905. 

•Arthur  Lakes.  —  Geology  of  Colorado  and  western  ore  deposits.     Denver,    1893. 
7S.    F.    Emmons.  —  Geology   and    Mining   industry  of   Leadville,    Colorado.      Monograph 

XII,    U.    S.    Geological    Survey.      Washington,     1886. 


123 


125 


126 


SILVER. 


Discovery  made  in  1874;  prominent  in  1877;  output  largest  in  1892. 
Ores :  oxidized  lead-silver,  passing  into  sulphides  at  depths  in  faulted 

Carboniferous  limestones. 
Aspen.8 


Fig.    57. — Northwest-southeast    section    through    Spar    ridge    and    Vallejo    gulct 
Aspen   district,   Colorado.       Washington  shaft   is   shown   near 
Vallejo   gulch. 


Fig.     58. — Section    showing    faults    and    ore-bodies    in    the    Bushwhacker-Park    Regent 
mine,   Aspen,   Colorado.       (Spurr.) 

Ores :  oxidized  lead-silver,  in  highly  folded  and  faulted  Carbonifer- 
ous limestones. 

•J.    E.    Spurr — Geology   of   the   Aspen   mining    district,    Colorado.      Monograph    XXXI, 
U.   S.  Geological  Survey.     Washington,   1898. 


127 


128  SILVER. 

Creede. 

Ores :    oxides    in    fissure    veins    in    igneous    rocks. 
Cripple  Creek.9 
Other   Colorado  districts:   Eagle   River,   Ten   Mile,   Monarch,   Rico,10 

Red  Mountain,  Custer  county,"  Silverton,12  Empire.13 
Montana. 

Butte  City  region." 

Ores :  native  silver  and  galena  in  veins  with  quartz  gangue  contain- 
ing  some    Mn ;    country   rock   of  granite. 
Granite  Mountain. 

Ores :   ruby  silver  associated  with  gold  in  veins  in  gray  granite. 
Other  Montana  silver  regions  are :  Cook  City,  Flint  Creek.  Glendale, 

and   Elkhorn   district.15 
Utah. 

Big  and  Little   Cottonwood  Canyons. 

Ores :  oxidized  lead-silver,  in  bedded  veins  in  Carboniferous  lime- 
stones. 
Beaver    county. 

Oxidized   lead-silver   ores   occur   in   contact   fissures    (Horn   Silver 
mine)  ;  in  chambers  in  limestones  (Cave  mine)  ;  in  fissure  veins 
(Carbonate  mine). 
Summit   county. 

Ores  in  veins  through  quartzite   (Ontario  mine). 
Other  silver  regions  of  Utah  are  Bingham  Canyon,  the  Mercur  dis- 
trict,16  the  Tintic   district,17  and   Silver   Reef. 

•W.  Cross  and  R.  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jr. — Geology  and  mining  industries  of  the  Cripple 
Creek  district,  Colorado.  Sixteenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt. 
II,  1-209.  Washington,  1895. 

"F.  L.  Ransome. — The  ore  deposits  of  the  Rico  mountains,  Colorado.  22nd  ann.  rep. 
U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  II,  229-397.  Washington,  1901. 

"S.  F.  Emmons. — The  mines  of  Custer  county,  Colorado.  Seventeenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey,  pt.  II,  405-472.  Washington,  1896. 

"F.  L.  Ransome. — A  report  on  the  economic  geology  of  the  Silverton  quadrangle, 
Colorado.  Bui.  182,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1901. 

"J.  E.  Spurr  and  G.  H.  Carrey. — Economic  geology  of  the  Georgetown  quadrangle, 
Colorado.  Professional  Paper  63,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1908. 

"W.  P.  Blake. — Silver-mining  and  milling  at  Butte,  Montana.     Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min. 

Eng.,   XVI,   38-45.     New  York,   1888. 

S.  F.  Emmons. — Notes  on  the  geology  of  Butte,  Montana.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst. 
Min.  Eng.,  XVI,  49-62.  New  York,  1888. 

"W.  H.  Weed. — Geology  and  ore  deposits  of  the  Elkhorn  mining  district,  Jefferson 
county,  Montana.  22nd  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  II,  399-510. 
Washington,  1901. 

"Spurr  and  Emmons. — Economic  geology  of  the  Mercur  mining  district,  Utah.  Six- 
teenth ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  II,  343-455.  Washington,  1895. 

17G.  W.  Tower,  Jr.,  and  G.  O.  Smith. — Geology  and  mining  industry  of  the  Tintic 
district,  Utah.  19th  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  Ill,  601-767. 
Washington,  1899. 


129 


130  SILVER. 

Nevada. 

The  Comstock  lode18  is  a  great  fissure  vein,  four  miles  long,  several 
hundred  feet  broad,  with  branching  ends;  it  follows  a  fault  line; 
the  greatest  displacement  is  at  the  centre,  where  it  is  nearly  3,000 
feet.  The  mines  reach  a  depth  of  about  3,000  feet,  and  there 
are  more  than  180  miles  of  workings. 

Ores:   high  grade,  associated   with  gold. 
Silver  is  to  gold  as  3  to  2. 

Yield  has  been  over  $132,000,000  in  silver  alone. 

Ores  in  bodies  irregularly  distributed  through  the  quartz  gangue; 

bonanzas. 
The   country   rock   is   diorite   and    diabase. 

The  Eureka  district.19 

Ores :  oxidized  lead-silver,  with  some  gold  irregularly  distributed 
through  veins  in  often  brecciated  Cambrian  limestones  and 
shales.  Depth  of  alteration  of  ores  over  1,300  feet. 

The  Tonopah  district20  was   discovered  in    1900. 

During  1908,  75  per  cent  of  the  silver  produced  in  Nevada  came 
from  Tonopah. 

Silver  sulphides  occur  with  many  rare  materials  in  veins.  The 
minerals  are  supposed  to  have  originated  by  solfataric  and 
fumarolic  action  during  a  period  of  Tertiary  vulcanism.  Oxi- 
dation by  underground  waters  has  taken  place  in  the  upper 
portions  of  the  veins. 

The  Goldfield  district21  was  discovered  in   1902. 
Primarily  a  gold  district. 

The  minerals  are  sulphides,  carbonates,  and  oxides  with  gold  and 
copper. 

Ores  originate  from  the  precipitation  of  sulphides  in  fissures  result- 
ing from  intrusive  masses  of  Tertiary  dacite  which  carried 
precious  metals  in  their  magmas. 

18G.   F.  Becker. — Geology  of  the  Comstock  lode  and  the  Washoe   district.     Monograph 

III,   U.    S.   Geological   Survey.      Washington,    1882. 

E.   Lord. — Comstock   mining   and   miners.      Monograph   IV,    U.    S.    Geological    Survey. 
Washington,  1883. 

1SJ.     S.     Curtis. — Silver-lead    deposits    of    Eureka,     Nevada.       Monograph    VII,    U.     S. 

Geological  survey.     Washington,   1884. 

Arnold    Hague. — Geology    of    the    Eureka    district,    Nevada.      Monograph    XX,    U.    S. 
Geological    Survey.      Washington,    1892. 

20J.    E.   Spurr. — Geology  of  the  Tonopah   mining  district,    Nevada.      Professional    Paper 

42,   U.   S.   Geological   Survey.      Washington,    1905. 
2IF.   L.    Ransome.— The   geology   and   ore   deposits   of  Goldfield,    Nevada.      Professional 

Paper  66,   U.    S.   Geological   Survey.      Washington,    1909. 


131 


132 


Manhattan  and  Bullfrog.22 
Gold  and  argentiferous  galena  occur  in  lodes  and  veins  in  Silurian 

metamorphics  near  intrusive  granites. 
Bullfrog. 
Native  gold  and  silver  occur  in  nearly  vertical  mineralized  faults  and 

fissures. 
Idaho. 

The  Coeur  d'Alene  district.23 

The  ore  has  been  precipitated  from  solutions  under  great  pressure 
in  fissures  of  a  complicated  system  of  faults.    It  is  in  the  form 
of    galena    with    siderite    gangue    in    country    rocks    of   highly 
folded  schists  and  quartzites. 
Wood   River  district. 

Ores  largely  altered  by  surface1   oxidation  and   irregularly   distrib- 
uted in  limestones. 
New  Mexico.24 
Lake  Valley  district. 

Ores  are  galena,  cerussite,  and  chloro-bromides  in  Paleozoic  lime- 
stones. 
The   silver   districts   about   Silver   City. 


Fig.    59. — Section    across    a    vein    in    the    Hillside    mine,    Yavapai    county,    Arizona, 
showing    the   ore    scattered   through   the    clay.       (Rickard.) 

—F.  L.  Ransome. — Preliminary  account  of  Goldfield,  Bullfrog,  and  other  mining  dis- 
tricts in  southern.  Nevada;  with  notes  on  the  Manhattan  district,  by  G.  H. 
Carrey  and  W.  H.  Emmons.  Bui.  303,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington, 
1907. 

23F.  L.  Ransome  and  F.  C.  Calkins. — The  geology  and  ore  deposits  of  the  Coeur 
d'Alene  district,  Idaho.  Professional  Paper  62,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 
Washington,  1908. 

24Lindgren,  Graton,  and  Gordon. — The  ore  deposits  of  New  Mexico.  Professional 
Paper  68,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1910. 


133 


134  SILVER. 

Arizona. 

Tombstone    region. 

Ore  is  horn  silver,  associated  with  galenite,  free  gold,  pyrite,  and 

lead  carbonate. 
Other  silver  regions  of  the  United  States. 

California  produces  some  silver  as  a  by-product  of  gold. 
Washington.25    At  Monte  Cristo  the  ore  occurs  in  veins  along  a  com- 
plicated system  of  joints. 
Texas.26 

Presidio  mine  has  argentiferous  galena  in  pockets  and  impregnations 

in  limestones. 
Dakota    (the    Black    Hills),    Michigan,    North    Carolina,    Oregon    and 

Alaska  are  all  silver  producers. 
Relative  importance.21 

Effect  of  coinage  legislation  upon  the  price  and  output  of  silver. 
The  value  of  silver. 
The  gold  standard. 

Silver  sold  for  $1.37  per  ounce  in  1857;  in  1910  the  price  was  $0.55  per 
ounce. 

MT.  E.  Spurr. — The  ore  deposits  of  Monte  Cristo,  Washington.     22nd  ann.  rep.  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey,  pt.   II,  785-865.     Washington,   1901. 

50H.    M.    Adkinson. — The   silver    mines   of   Texas.      Engineering    and    Mining   Journal, 
LXXIV,    150-151.     New   York,    1902. 

"Clarence   King. — Production   of   the   precious   metals   in    the   United    States.      Second 
ann.   rep.  U.   S.   Geological  Survey,  331-401.     Washington,   1882. 


135 


136 


SILVER. 


SILVER/ 

THE  SILVER 
PRODUCTION 

OP  SILVER  PRa 


COLPRADO 

MONTANA 

UTAH 

I  DAMO 

NEVADA 

ARIZONA 


Fig.   60. 


137 


Pf-t-up  unto--—  TTTTlS''!    i     TiS 
»Fi4+ffi4$^£4ttK 


THE  SILVER  OUTPUT  OF  THE 
PRINCIPAL  SILVER  PRODUCING 
COUNTRIES  SINCE  I88O. 


MEXICO 

UN  I  TED  STATES 
CANADA 


AUSTRALASIA 
EUROPE 
PERU 
BOLIVIA 


Fig.  61. 


138  COPPER. 


COPPER. 

Copper  is  a  soft,  highly  ductile,  red-brown  metal  having  a  specific  gravity 
of  8.9.  Its  most  valuable  properties  are  its  conductivity,  malleability, 
and  its  availability  in  the  manufacture  of  various  alloys. 

Uses. 

For  conductors  of  electricity.     Conductivity  of  silver  100,  of  copper  96. 
In  the  manufacture  of  alloys,  brass,  bronze,  etc.1 
Copper  plafe  engraving,  calico  printing. 

Ores.2 

Native  copper    (Cu— 100). 
Sulphides. 

Chalcocite  (Co2S),  cuprous  sulphide  (Cu=79.8,  5^=20.2). 
Chalcopyrite   (Cu=34.5,  Fe=30.5,  S=35.0).     Cu  FeSa  or  Cu2S  Fe.S3, 

sometimes  with  silver  and  gold. 

Bornite,  crystallized  Cu3  FeS3,    (Cu=55.5,   Fe=16.4,   S=28.1),  propor- 
tions  varying. 

Oxides. 

Cuprite,  cuprous  oxide,  Cu2O  (Cu=88.8,  O=11.2). 
Tenorite,  cupric  oxide,  CuO   (Cu=79.8,  O=20.2). 

Carbonates. 

Malachite,  Cu.CO*  +  H2O.     (Cu=57.4),  say  carbon  dioxide  19.9,  cupric 

oxide  71.9,  water  8.2. 
Azurite,  Cu3C2C>7+H2O.        (Cu=55.22),     Co225.6,    cupric    oxide    69.2, 

water  5.2. 

Silicates. 

Chrysocolla,    Cu    SiOs  +  2H»O.    (Cu=36.1 -f  silica   and   water),    silica 

34.3,  copper  oxide  45.2,  water  20.5. 
Relative  values. 

Occurrence   and  Association. 

In  veins,  in  regular  bodies  and  disseminated  through  the  rocks. 

JDr.   M.   Stack. — Bibliographic  der  metallegierungen.     77.     Hamburg  u.   Leipzig,    1903. 
T.   K.    Rose. — Progress   in   metallurgy;     alloys   of   Al2Cu.      Nature.      LXIII,    232-233. 
London  and  New  York,   1901. 

*E.    Walker.— The    copper    sulphate    deposits    at    Copaguire,    Chile.      Engineering    and 
Mining  Journal,  LXXXV,  710.     New  York,   1903 


139 


140 


COPPER. 


Many  minerals   are  associated  with  copper. 

Gold  in  California;  silver  in  Montana;  tin  in  Cornwall. 
Methods  of  formation  of  copper  deposits.3 

Distribution. 
Geologic  distribution. 

It  occurs  in  rocks  of  all  ages. 

Keweenawan  age  of  the  Lake  Superior  copper-bearing  rocks; 

Ages  of  other  deposits. 
Geographical  distribution. 

Copper  in  Spain ;  the  Rio  Tinto  mines.4 


Fig.    62. — Cross-section    of   the   south    vein    of   the    Rio   Tinto    copper    mine   in    Spain. 
(De   Launay.) 

Austria. 
Prussia. 

The  Mansfeld  mines ;  14,250  tons  in  1891 ;  18,557  tons  in  1896. 
Great  Britain. 

The  Cornwall  mines. 
Russia. 

The  Ural  district. 


*J-   F.    Kemp. — Secondary   enrichment   in   ore   deposits   of   copper.      Economic    Geology, 

I,   11-25.      1906.      " 
E.    C.    Sullivan.— Precipitation   of  copper   by   natural   silicates.      Economic   Geology,    I, 

67-73.      1906. 
A.    C.    Lane. — The    theory   of   copper    deposition.      Ann.    rep.      Geological    Survey    of 

Michigan    for    1903,    239-249.      Lansing,    1905. 

H.   C.   Biddle.— Journal   of  Geology,   IX,   430-436.      Chicago,    1901. 
R.   Pumpelly. — The  paragenesis  of  copper,    and   its   associates   in   the    Superior   region. 

Amer.  Journal  of  Science,  CII,  188-258;  347-355.     New  Haven,   1871. 

*D.  Antonio,  L.  Anciola  y  D.  Eloyde  Cassio. — -M§moria  sobre  las  minas  de  Rio  Tinto. 

Madrid,    1856. 
L.    de   Launay. — M£moire   sur   1'industrie   du   cuivre   dans   la    region    d'Huelva.      Ann. 

des  Mines,  8me   S6r.   XVI,  427-516.     Paris,    1889.      (Bibliography.) 


141 


142  COPPER. 

Japan,5  Mexico,6  Cuba.1 

Enrichment  in  post-Cretaceous  diorite  strikes. 
Queensland.8 

Copper  oxide  in  pre-Cambrian  slates,   schists,   and  metamorphosed 

sediments  at  contacts  with  intrusive  granites  and  diorites. 
New  South  Wales.9 
Chile.10 

At  one  place  an  extinct  volcanic  crater,  three  miles  in  circumference, 
and  rilled  with  tuff,  is  surrounded  by  highly  fractured  diorite 
which    is    mineralized    as    far    as    three    miles    out    from    the 
crater. 
Bolivia. 

New  discoveries  and  little  development. 
Africa." 

Deposits  of  silicates  and  oxides   forming  7  per  cent  of  the   rock. 

The  Principal  Copper  Regions  of  North  America.12 
North   America    produces    two-thirds    of   the    world's    supply    of    copper. 
Most  of  the  copper  produced  in  America  comes  from  six  regions:    (1) 
the  Arizona  region;    (2)    the  Butte  City  region  of  Montana;    (3) 
the  Lake  Superior  region  of  Michigan;   (4)   the  Utah  region;   (5) 
the  Nevada  region  ;6  the  California  region. 
I.  The  Lake  Superior  Region,  Michigan.13 

French  explorers  in   the  seventeenth  century  discovered  the  deposit. 

BR.  J.  Frecheville. — Description  of  the  Besshi  copper  mine  in  Japan.  Trans.  Royal 
Geological  Society  of  Cornwall,  X,  113-119.  Penzance,  1882. 

•J.  F.  Kemp. — The  copper-deposits  at  San  Jose,  Tamaulipas,  Mexico.  Trans.  Amer. 
Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXXVI,  178-203.  New  York,  1906. 

*T.  W.  Vaughan. — The  copper  mines  of  Santa  Clara  province,  Cuba.  Engineering  and 
Mining  Journal,  LXXII,  814-816.  New  York,  1901. 

8G.    W.    Williams. — The    Cloncurry    copper    district,     Queensland.        Engineering    and 

Mining  Journal,  LXXXVIII,   155-159.     New  York,   1909. 

B.  Dunstan. — Moonmera,  Queensland,  its  minerals  and  copper  mines.  Geological 
Survey  of  Queensland.  Publication  195.  Brisbane,  1904. 

•J.    E.    Carne. — The   copper-mining   industry in   New   South    Wales.      Sydney. 

2nd  ed.     1908. 

10Wm.  Braden. — The  Braden  copper  mines  in  Chile.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal, 
LXXXIV,  1059-1062.  New  York,  1907. 

UH.  Battgenbach. — Les  gisements  de  cuivre  du  Katanga.  Trans.  Soc.  G£ol  de  Belgique. 
Li6ge,  1905. 

"W.  H.  Weed. — The  Copper  Production  of  the  United  States.  Bulletin  260,  211-250. 
U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1905. 

"J.   W.    Foster   and   J.    D.    Whitney. — Report   on   the   geology   and   topography   of   Lake 
Superior  land  district,   in   the  state  of   Michigan.      Part   I,   copper  lands.     Wash- 
ington,   1850. 
R.    D.    Irving.— The    copper-bearing    rocks    of    Lake    Superior.      Monograph    V,    U.    S. 

Geological  Survey.     Washington,   1883.      (Bibliography.) 

For  bibliography  of  the  history  of  mining  in  the  Lake  Superior  region,  see  Twenty- 
third  ann.  rep.  Geological  Survey  of  Minnesota  for  1894,  148-155,  and  Bui. 
Mus.  Comp.  Zool.,  VII,  133-157.  Cambridge,  1880. 

M.  E.  Wadsworth. — The  origin  and  mode  of  occurrence  of  the  Lake  Superior  copper 
deposits.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  669-696,  XXVII.  New  York,  1898. 


143 


144  COPPER. 

Keweenawan  age  of  the  ore-bearing  rocks. 

The  ore  is  native  copper  ramifying  the  rocks,  which  are  sandstones, 

conglomerates,  and  diabase. 
Character  of  the  ore  deposits. 

Veins. 

Bedding  planes. 

Impregnations. 
The  copper-bearing  conglomerate  and  amygdaloids. 

Depth  of  the  mines,  4,700  feet+.u 

The  copper  belt  is  narrow  and  100  miles  long. 

//.  The  Butte  Region  of  Montana" 
Age  and  character  of  the   rocks. 

The  hill  at  Butte  is  granite  with  rhyolite  dikes,  and  much  faulted. 
There  are  three  systems  of  veins  and  three  systems  of  faults. 
The  Butte  ores  are  copper  sulphide  and  silver. 

The  upper  400  feet  leached  of  copper;  the  lode  was  first  worked 

for   silver. 

Bornite  and  chalcocite  below. 
The  deposits  are  in  fissure  veins. 

Montana  is  the  only  large  copper  producing  district  in  which  the  ore 
is  entirely  in  veins. 

///.  The  Arizona  Copper  Region.™ 

Three  copper-producing  districts  in  southeastern  Arizona. 

1.  The   Globe  district.17 

2.  The  Clifton  district.18 

3.  The  Bisbee  district.19 

4.  The  Black  Range  district. 

^American  Journal  of  Science,   CL,   503.      New  Haven,   1895. 

T.   A.    Rickard. — Copper  mines  of   Lake   Superior.      Engineering   and   Mining   Journal, 
LXXVIII,   585-587;   625-627.      New  York,    1904. 

"Weed,    Emmons   and   Tower. — Butte    Special   folio,    Montana,    Folio    38,    U.    S.    Geol. 
Survey.     Washington,    1897. 

"Arthur    F.    Wendt. — The    copper   ores    of   the    southwest. — Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 

Eng.,  XV.  25-77.     New  York,   1887. 
James   Douglas. — The   Copper   Queen  mine,   Arizona.      Trans.   Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng., 

XXIX,   511-546.     New  York,    1900. 
T.  'F.    Blandy. — The   mines   of   Yavapai   county,   Arizona.      Eng.    and    Mining   Journal, 

LXIII,  632-634.     New  York,   1897. 

1TF.    L.    Ransome. — The    geology    of   the    Globe   copper    district,    Arizona.      Professional 
Paper   12,  U.   S.  Geological  Survey.     Washington,   1903. 

18W.  Lindgren. — The  copper  deposits  of  the  Clifton-Morenci  district,  Arizona.     Profes- 
sional Paper   43,   U.    S.    Geological   Survey,   Washington,    1905. 

"F.  L.   Ransome. — The  copper  deposits  of  Bisbee,  Arizona.      Engineering  and   Mining 

Journal,  LXXV,  444-445.     New  York,   1903. 

Geology  and  ore  deposits  of  the  Bisbee  quadrangle,  Arizona.     Professional  Paper  21, 
U.   S.   Geological   Survey.      Washington,    1904. 


145 


146 


COPPER. 


Fig.  63. — Section  of  the  Globe  copper  mine,  Maricopa  county,  Arizona.      The  limestone 
is    of    Carboniferous    age.        (Wendt.) 


Ore 

<3£S^  Porphyry 

Fig.    64. — Section  across   Longfellow  Hill   and  Chase   creek  canyon,   Longfellow   copper 
mine,  Clifton  district,  Arizona.       (Wendt.) 


[JVJ9I  Porphyry 


Fig.    65.— Section    of    Metcalf    Hill,    Clifton    copper    basin,    Arizona.        (Wendt.) 


147 


148  COPPER. 

Other  Copper  districts  of  the  United  States. 

1.  New    Mexico.20 

Santa   Rita  mining  district. 

2.  California.21 

Copperopolis ;  Iron  Mountain  mines  at  Keswick." 

3.  Utah. 
Bingham  district.23 

Silver  reef. 

Sulphides  of  copper  impregnate  igneous  intrusions  in  Carbonifer- 
ous limestones. 

4.  Colorado.24 

In  Gilpin  county  copper  occurs  with  gold  in  veins  in  granite  rocks. 

5.  Wyoming.25 

Sedimentaries   metamorphosed   by   igneous   intrusions   and   impreg- 
nated with  sulphides  along  contacts. 

6.  Idaho.26 

Ore  is  at  the  contact  of  limestone  with  intrusive  porphyries. 

7.  Missouri.27 

Chalcopyrite  with  chert  in  Cambrian  magnesian  limestones. 

8.  New  Jersey.28 

Minerals  deposited  in  sandstone  near  intrusive  triassic  diabase  which 
contains  copper  sulphides. 

20Lindgren,  Graton,  and  Gordon. — The  ore  deposits  of  New  Mexico.  Professional 
Paper  68,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1910. 

21J.  S.  Diller. — The  copper  deposits  of  the  Redding  region,  California.  Bulletin  213, 
123-132  and  Bulletin  225,  169-179.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1903. 

Herbert  Lang. — Copper  resources  of  California.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal, 
LXVII,  442,  470.  New  York,  1899. 

H.  Lang. — The  copper  belt  of  California.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXXXIV, 
909;  963;  1006.  New  York,  1907. 

22J.    A.    Reid. — The   ore   deposits    of   Copperopolis,    California.      Economic    Geology,    II, 

380-417.      1907. 
J.    S.    Diller. — The   topper    region    of   northern    California.      Engineering   and    Mining 

Journal,   LXXIII,   857-858.     New  York,    1902. 
=3J.  M.  Boutwell. — Genesis  of  the  ore  deposits  of  Bingham,  Utah.     Trans.  Amer.   Inst. 

Min.    Eng.,   XXXVI,    541-580.      New    York,    1906. 

J.  M.  Boutwell. — The  Bingham  Mining  district,  Utah.  Professional  Paper  38.  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1905. 

Colorado.     Bulletin  340,   157-174.     U.  S.  Geological  Survey.     Washington,   1908. 
24W.  Lindgren.— Notes  on  copper  deposits  in  ChafFee,   Fremont,  and  Jefferson  counties, 

-5A.  C.  Spencer. — The  copper  deposits  of  the  Encampment  district.  Wyoming.  Profes- 
sional Paper  25,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1904. 

26Ransome  and   Calkins. — The   Coeur  d'Alene   district,    Idaho.      Professional   Paper   62, 

U.   S.   Geological   Survey.     Washington,    1908. 

Wm.  Beals,  Jr. — The  Seven  Devils  mining  district,  Idaho.  Engineering  and  Mining 
Journal.  LXIX,  345-346.  New  York,  1900. 

27H.  F.  Bain  and  E.  O.  Ulrich. — The  copper  deposits  of  Missouri.  Bui.  267,  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1905. 

88 T.  Volney  Lewis. — Copper  deposits  of  the  New  Jersey  Triassic.  Economic  Geology, 
II.  242-257.  1907. 


149 


150  COPPER. 

9.  Tennessee.29 

Ore  is  secondary  enrichment  in  old  pre-Cambrian  metamorphics. 

10.  North    Carolina   and   Virginia.30 

Ore  is  in  metamorphosed  pre-Cambrian  andesites. 

11.  Vermont.*1 

12.  Alaska.82 

Relative  importance  of  the  different  regions  in  the  United  States. 

American  copper  mines  compared  with  foreign  mines. 
Effect  of  metallurgical  processes  upon  cost  of  production. 

Importance  of  the  electrolytic  process. 

»J.   F.   Kemp. — The  deposits  of  copper  ores  at  Ducktown,  Tenn.     Trans.   Amer.   Inst. 
Min.    Eng.,  XXXI,   244-265.     New   York,    1902. 

30W.    H.    Weed. — Types    of    copper-deposits    in    the    southern    United    States.      Trans. 

Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXX,  449-504.     New  York,   1901. 
T.    L.    Watson. — The   copper-bearing   rocks   of   the    Virgilina   copper    district,    Virginia 

and  North  Carolina.     Bui.  of  the  Geological  Society  of  America,  XIII,  353-376. 

Rochester,   1902. 
W.  H.  Weed  and  T.  L.  Watson. — The  Virginia  copper  deposits.     Economic  Geology, 

I,  309-330.  March,  1906. 

81  A.   Wendt. — The     pyrites,   deposits  of  the  Alleghanies.     School   of  Mines   Quarterly, 

VII,   154-188,  218-235,  301-323.     New  York,   1886. 

H.    A.    Wheeler. — Copper    deposits    of    Vermont.      School    of    Mines    Quarterly,    IV, 
219-224.     New  York,   1883. 

32F.    E.    and   C.   W.   Wright— The  Ketchikan  and   Wrangell   Mining   districts,   Alaska. 

Bui.  347,  U.  S.   Geological  Survey.     Washington,   1908. 
H.  A.  Keller. — The  Copper  river  district,  Alaska.     Engineering  and  Mining  Journal, 

LXXXVIII,    1273-1278.     New  York,   1908. 
C.  W.  Wright. — The  copper  deposits  of  Kasaan  peninsula,  Alaska.     Economic  Geology, 

III,  410-417.      1908. 
A.  H.  Brooks. — The  copper  deposits  of  the  White,  Tanana  and  Copper  river  regions, 

of  Alaska.     Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXXIV,  13-14.     New  York,  1902. 
Schrader  and  Spencer.— The  Copper  river  district,  Alaska.     Special  Publication,  U.  S. 

Geological   Survey.     Washington,   1901. 


151 


152 


COPPER 

THE  COPPEIR  PRODUCTION 

OF  THE  PRINCIPAL    COPPER 
PRODUCING   STATES  OF  THE     : 
UNITED  STATES  SINCE  I860.  I 


Fig.  66. 


153 


COPPER 

THE  PRODUCTION    OF  COPPER  BY  THE 
PRINCIPAL  COPPER  PRODUCING  COUN- 
TRJCS  IN  THE  WORLD  SINCE  1879, 
:    UNITED   STATES 
SPAIN 


CHILI 

GERMANY 
JAPAN. 
MEXICO 


Fig.  67. 


154:  ZINC. 

ZINC.1 

Zinc  is  a  soft,  brittle  silver  white  metal  having  a  specific  gravity  of  7.2. 
It  does  not  easily  corrode  or  rust. 

Uses. 

As  an  alloy  with  copper. 

Brass  is  66  to  73  per  cent  copper  and  27  to  34  per  cent  zinc. 
White  metal. 
Imitation  gold  foil. 

Zinc  white   (ZnO)   is  much  used  for  paint. 
Galvanizing  nails,  iron  pipe,  sheet  iron  for  roofing. 
Electric  batteries. 

The  importance  of  zinc  as  compared  with  iron,  copper,  and  other 
metals. 

Ores. 

Spalilerite    (Zn   67,   S    33),    commonly   called   blende,   jack,   black-jack, 

rosin  jack. 

'Smithsonite    (ZnO  64.8,  COJ5.2'),  51.4  metallic  zinc. 
Calamite   (Zn  54.2,  SiO2  25  +  water). 
Zincite  (Zn  80.3,  O  19.7). 
Franklinite  (ZnO,  varies  from  16  to  23  -}-). 
Willemite   (Zn  58.5,  SiO3  27.1). 
Comparative  importance  of  the  ores. 

Occurrence  and  Association. 

Zinc  usually  occurs  in  nature  associated  with  lead,  and  often  with  copper 

and  silver. 
The  origin  of  beds  and  veins.3 

Distribution. 

Although  zinc  has  a  very  wide  distribution,  the  zinc  of  the  commerce 
of  the  world  comes  from  comparatively  few  regions. 

Geological   distribution. 

Zinc  has  a  very  general  geologic  distribution,  but  by  far  the  greater 
part  of  the  zinc  mined  comes  from  Silurian  and  Lower  Carbon- 
iferous limestones  and  cherts. 

*W.   R.   Ingalls. — The  production  and  properties  of  zinc.     New  York,    1902. 

»A.  M.  Finlayson. — Problems  of  ore  deposition  in  the  lead  and  zinc  veins  of  Great 
Britain.  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society,  LXYI,  299-328.  Lon- 
don, 1910. 

Arthur  Winslow. — The  lead  and  zinc  deposits  of  Missouri.  Jefferson  City,  1894. 
(Bibliography.) 

Chas.  R.  Keyes.— Ozark  lead  and  zinc  deposits:  their  genesis,  localization,  and  migra- 
tion. Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XL,  ]  84-231.  New  York,  1910. 


155 


156  ZINC. 


Geographical   distribution. 
Zinc  producing  regions  in  the  order  of  their  importance. 

1.  United   States. 

2.  Belgium. 

3.  Silesia. 

4.  Rhine  district. 

5.  France  and  Spain. 

6.  Great   Britain. 

The  zinc  industry  originated  in  Belgium  about  1800. 

Zinc  in  the  Urlited  States. 

There  are  two  principal  regions  in  the  United  States. 
The  eastern  or  Appalachian  region. 
The  western  or   Mississippi  valley  region. 
The  eastern  region. 

New  Jersey,  Sussex  county.4 

The  ores  occur  in  Lower  Silurian  and  older  limestones. 
The  ores  are  the  red  oxides :  franklinite,  willemite,  and  zincite. 
Pennsylvania,  Saucon  valley,  four  miles  south  of  Bethlehem. 
Ores  from  brecciated  Chazy  magnesian  limestone. 
The  ores  are  calamine  above  and  sphalerite  below. 

Virginia.8 

The  ores  are  calamine  and  smithsonite  in  clays  derived  by  decom- 
position from  limestones. 
New  Hampshire. 
Eastern  Tennessee.* 

At  Mossy  Creek  and  Xew  Market  the  ores  are  sphalerite  in  brec- 
ciated magnesian  limestone,  and  smithsonite  nearer  the  surface. 

The  Mississippi  valley  region. 

The  two  principal  zinc-producing  districts  of  the  Mississippi  valley 
are  the  Illinois-Wisconsin  district  and  the  Missouri-Kansas- 
Arkansas  district. 

4A.  C.  Spencer. — The  Mine  Hill  and  Sterling  Hill  zinc  deposits,  Sussex  county,  New 
Jersey.     Geological   Survey  of  New  Jersey,   ann.   rep.,   25-52.     Trenton,    1909. 

«T.   L.   Watson. — Lead  and  zinc   deposits  of   Virginia.     Bui.    1,   Geological   Survey  of 

Virginia.      Richmond,    1905. 

W.   H.   Case. — The  Bertha  zinc  mines   at  Bertha,   Virginia.     Trans.   Amer.    Inst.   Min. 
Eng.,   XXII,   511-536.     New   York,    1894. 

•T.    L.    Watson. — Lead    and    zinc-deposits    of    the    Virginia-Tennessee    region.      Trans. 

Amer.   Inst.   Min.   Eng.,   XXXVI,   681-737.      New   York,    1906. 

S.   W.    Osgood. — The  East  Tennessee   zinc   mining   district.     Engineering  and   Mining 
Journal,   LXXXVII,   401-404.      New    York,    1909. 


157 


158 


ZINC. 


The  Illinois-Wisconsin  district.7 
The  ores  have  been  precipitated  from  solutions. 
Modes  of  occurrence. 


. 


Fig.    68.  —  Section    showing    the    zinc    ore 
osit   in   the 
Wisconsin. 


deposit   in   the   Atkinson   range    in 
(Chamberlin.) 


Fig.    69.  —  Section    of   a    mine    in   the    de- 

posit   shown   in   fig.    68   after   it   is 

worked  out.      (Chamberlin.) 


Soil   and  Residuary  Clay 
Upper  Galena 

Middle  Galena. 


;_     Low«r   Galena 


Blue  Limestone 
Buff  Limestone 


?y...  .  r*,:.7:C-..^  ^J+-~..-  •••  '••••••  St.  P  et  e  r's  S  an  dst  o  n  e     ^^^Hj 


Fig.    70. — Ideal    section    in    the    lead    and 

zinc    region    of    Wisconsin,    showing 

the  forms  of  ore  deposits  at  the 

different    horizons. 

(Chamberlin.) 


Fig.  71. — Ideal  section  through  "flats  and 

pitches"   of   the  lead   and   zinc   region 

of  Wisconsin.       (Chamberlin.) 


Relative  occurrence  of  lead  and  zinc. 
Geological  horizons. 


7W.    P.    Blake. — The    mineral    deposits   of    southwest    Wisconsin.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst. 

Min.   Eng.,   XXII,   558-568.     New   York,    1894. 
U.  S.  Grant. — Structural  relations  of  the  Wisconsin  zinc  and  lead  deposits.     Economic 

Geology,    I,    233-242.      1905. 
T.    C.    Chamberlin. — The   ore   deposits   of  southwest   Wisconsin.      Geol.    of   Wisconsin, 

IV,  pt.   IV,  365-568.     Madison,    1879. 


159 


160  ZINC. 

The  Missouri-Kansas-Arkansas  zinc  fields.8 

Ores  occur  in  synclinal  troughs  and  in  breccias. 
Missouri. 


Fig.    72. — Map    of    a    portion    of    the    Eagle    lead    and    zinc    mines    in    Jasper    county, 

Missouri,    showing   the   linear    distribution    of   the   ores.       Scale: 

one   inch=l,000    feet.       (Winslow.) 


Fig.   73. — General  map  of  the  lead  and  zinc  mines  north  of  Aurora,  Lawrence  county, 

Missouri,  showing  the   linear  arrangement  of   the  ore-bodies.       Scale: 

three    inches    to    one    mile.        (Winslow.) 


8F.    L.    Clerc. — The   mining   and   metallurgy  of  zinc   in   the   U.    S.      Min.   Resources   of 

the  U.    S.    for    1882,    358-386.      Washington,    1883. 
Arthur    Winslow. — The    lead    and    zinc    deposits    of    Missouri.      Geological    Survey    of 

Missouri,  VI  and  VII.     Jefferson  City,  1894.     (This  work  contains  a  bibliography 

of  lead  and  zinc.)     An  abstract  of  this  report  is  published  in  the  Trans.   Amer. 

Inst.    Min.   Eng.,   XXIV,   634-689.      New   York,    1895. 
J.  R.  Holibaugh. — Lead  and  zinc  mining  of  southwest  Missouri  and  southeast  Kansas. 

New  York,    1895. 
Chas.     R.     Keyes. — Ozark    lead    and    zinc    deposits:    their    genesis,    localization,    and 

migration.     Trans.   Amer.   Inst.    Min.   Eng.,   XL,    184-231.     New   York,    1910. 


161 


162  zixc. 

Kansas.0 

Arkansas.10 
Nature    of   the    ores. 
Geological   horizons. 
Modes  of  occurrence :  beds,  veins,  and  breccias. 


Sphalerite 


Fig.   74. — Breccia  of  dolomite  cemented  with  dolomite  spar  and  sphalerite, 
the  zinc  ores  of   north   Arkansas  and  southwestern   Missouri. 


A  type  of 


"Haworth,  Crane,  and  Rogers. — Special  report  on  lead  and 
Geological   Survey,   VIII.      Topeka,    1908. 


University  of  Kansas 
U.  S. 


°Adams,  Purdue,  and  Burchard. — Zinc  and  lead  deposits  of  northern  .Arka 
Geological  Survey,   Professional  Paper  24.     Washington,   1904. 

J.   C.   Branner. — The  zinc  and   lead  region   of   north   Arkansas.      Ann.    rep.   Geological 
Survey  of  Arkansas  for   1892,   \.     Little   Rock,    1900. 


163 


164 


ZINC. 


Fig.   75. — A  normal  fault  at  the   Morning   Star   zinc  mine   in  north   Arkansas,   showing 
a   displacement  of  three   feet. 

The   Iowa   zinc   deposits.11 
The  New  Mexico  district.12 

Ground  water  level  through  strata  contains  oxides  of  zinc. 
Colorado  produces  much  zinc  as  a  by-product  from  the  lead  mines. 
Zinc  found  in  the  silver  mines. 

Effect  of  zinc  on  gold  and  silver  ores. 
Probable  origin  of  zinc  deposits.13 

Relative  importance  of  the  zinc  regions  of  the  United  States. 
Relative  importance  of  the  zinc  regions  of  the  world. 

"A.    G.    Leonard. — Lead    and    zinc    deposits    of    Iowa.      Iowa    Geological    Survey,    VI, 
11-66.     Des  Moines,    1897. 

"Philip    Argall. — The    ore    deposits    of    Magdalena,    New    Mexico.      Engineering    and 
Mining  Journal,  LXXXVI,  366-370.     New  York,  1908. 

"A.    G.    Leonard.— Origin   of  the    Iowa   lead   and   zinc   deposits.      American   Geologist, 
XVI,   288-294.      Minneapolis,    1895. 


165 


166 


ZINC. 


ZINC. 

TViE   PRODUCTION  OF  ZINC 
SPELTER   FROM  SMELTERS 
OF  THE  PRINCIPAL    PRODUC 
ING    STATES  SINCE  1882. 


Fig.    76. 


COO  Tllf 


22$ 


ZINC. 

"["HE.   COMPARATIVE. 
E    PRODUCTION  OF  ZINC  BY 
THt  CHIEF  PRODUCING 
COUNTRIES  SINCE    1880. 


Fig.    77. 


168  LEAD. 


LEAD. 

Lead  is  the  softest,  and,  next  to  gold  and  platinum,  the  heaviest  metal. 
The  most  valuable  properties  of  lead  are  its  softness  and  ductility,  its  high 
specific  gravity,  and  the  low  temperature  at  which  it  melts.  (330°C.) 

Uses. 

Paint:  white  lead  is  lead  carbonate,  some  is  lead  oxide,  and  a  white  lead 

sulphate  is  now  made  for  paint.1 
Pigments :  certain  yellows  and  red  lead. 

Chrome  yellow,  Turner's  yellow  and  orange  yellow. 
Alloys  of  lead. 

Pewter  is  tin  and  from  8  to  18%  lead. 

Organ-pipe  metal  is  zinc  and  lead  in  equal  parts. 

Solder. 

Type  metal  contains  lead,  antimony,  and  bismuth. 

Babbitt  metal  and  other  anti-friction  alloys  contains  lead  and  antimony 

Shot  is  700  parts  of  lead  to  3  parts  of  arsenic. 
Pipes  for  plumbing;  importance  of  ductility. 
Sheet  lead  for  roofing. 

Glass  making. 

Medicine   (acetate,  carbonate,  iodide,  etc.). 

Ores. 

Galena  (Pb  86.6,  S  13.4). 

Argentiferous  galena  from  the  silver  mines. 

Non-argentiferous  galena  of  the  Mississippi  valley  region. 
Cerussite  (PbO  83.5,  CO2  16.5),  known  as  "dry  bone." 

Galena  and  cerussite  are  usually  found  together. 
Anglesite  (PbO  73.6,  and  SO3  26.4.) 

Lead  is  usually  associated  with  zinc  or  silver.      The  greater  part  of  the 
lead  of  commerce  is  mined  as  a  by-product  of  silver. 

Association  and  Modes   of   Occurrence  of   Lead  Ores." 

In  veins  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region. 

In  the  Ozark  region  they  occur  in  cavities  and  disseminated  through  the 
rocks. 

'P.    C.    Mclllhiney.— The   manufacture   of   white   lead.      Mineral    Industry  during    1900, 
435-438.     New  York,    1901. 

^Figures  illustrating  the  occurrence  of  lead  ores   will  be   found   under  the  subjects  of 

zinc  and   silver. 
William  Wallace. — The  laws  which  regulate  the  deposition  of  lead  ores.    London,  1861. 


169 


170  LEAD. 

Distribution  of  Lead. 
Lead  has  a  very  wide  geologic  and  geographic  distribution. 

Most  countries  yield  some  lead,  but  Spain  is  the  most  important  lead 

producer. 
Geologic  distribution. 

Lead  is  confined  to  rocks  of  no  particular  age,  but  most  of  it  is  taken 

from  Paleozoic  rocks. 

Geographic  distribution  (principal  producers  only).3 
Spain. 

United   States. 
Germany. 
Mexico.* 

Australia  (New  South  Wales). 
Great  Britain. 
Italy. 

Lead  Regions  of  the  United  States.5 

There  are  three  principal  lead  regions  in  the  United  States:  (1)  the  Ap- 
palachian region;  (2)  the  Mississippi  region;  (3)  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region. 

The  Appalachian  region. 
The  ore  is  in  vein  is  in  veins  in  metamorphic  rocks,  from  Georgia  to 

Maine;  the  region  is  not  of  importance  now. 
The  Mississippi  region* 

Wisconsin  district,7  principal  mines  about  Mineral  Point  and  Plattville. 
The  ore  occurs  as  galena  with  sphalerite  in  synclinal  and  other  basins 
where  they  have  been  concentrated  by  underground  waters  from 
the  country  rock. 
Iowa  district;  principal  mines  about  Dubuque.8 

Galena  associated  with  zinc  in  Lower  Silurian  (Galena)  limestones  in 
veins,   cavities,   "flats,"  and  "pitches." 

'Lead  and  zinc  mining  in  foreign  countries.  Special  Consular  Reports,  X.  Wash- 
ington, 1894. 

4R.    A.    y    Santillan. — Bibliography   of    Mexican    geology    and    mining.      Trans.    Amer. 

Inst.   Min.   Eng.,  XXXII,   605-680.     New  York,    1902. 
Lindgren,    Graton,    and    Gordon. — The    ore    deposits    of    New    Mexico.      Professional 

Paper,   68,   U.    S.    Geological    Survey,    Washington,    1910. 
BW.   R.    Ingalls. — Chronology  of  lead-mining   in   the   U.    S.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 

Eng.,    XXXVIII,    644-655.      New    York,    1908. 

«J.    D.    Whitney. — The   upper   Mississippi   lead    region.     Albany,    1862. 

7U.  S.  Grant. — Structural  relations  of  the  Wisconsin  zinc  and  lead  deposits.  Economic 
Geology,  I,  233-242.  1906. 

Moses  Strong. — Geology  and  topography  of  the  lead  region.  Geology  of  Wisconsin, 
1873-77,  II,  pt.  IV.  Beloit,  1877. 

T.  C.  Chamberlin. — The  ore  deposits  of  southwestern  Wisconsin.  Geologv  of  Wis- 
consin, 1873-79,  IV,  pt.  IV.  Beloit,  1882. 

*C.  A.   White. — Report  on  the  geology  of  Iowa,  II,  339.     Des  Moines,    1870. 


171 


172  LEAD. 

Kentucky.' 
Illinois. 
Nature  and  modes  of  occurrence  of  the  ore  is  similar  to  that  of  the 

Wisconsin-Iowa  district ;  in  Galena  limestone. 
Missouri,10  Kansas,  Arkansas,  and 
Oklahoma." 

Galena  in  veins,  cavities,  and  scattered  masses  in  Paleozoic  limestone, 
from  the  Cambrian  to  the  Lower  Carboniferous,  mostly  the 
latter.  The  ore  is  often  associated  with  zinc,  and  originated  by  the 
precipitation  from  underground  solutions  in  faults  and  breccias 
and  even  in  beds. 

Silicates  and  carbonates  are  also  found  associated  with  the  sulphide 
ores. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  region. 

Most  of  the  lead  produced  at  present  in  the  United  States  comes  from 
the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  where  it  is  taken  as  a  by-product  of 
silver  from  argentiferous  galena. 
Colorado. 
Leadville  district." 
Lead-silver  ores  oxidized  at  the  surface,  in  Carboniferous  limestone 

associated   with   porphyry. 
Sulphide  ores  at  depths. 
Aspen. 

Lead-silver  ores  oxidized  at  the  surface,  in  Carboniferous  limestone. 
Other  Colorado  districts. 

•E.    O.    Ulrich    and    W.     S.    Tangier    Smith. — The    lead deposits    of    Western 

Kentucky.     Professional  Paper  36,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.     Washington,  1905. 

10Adolf  Schmidt  and  Alexander  Leonhard. — The  lead  and  zinc  regions  of  southwest 
Missouri.  Geological  Survey  of  Missouri,  I,  381-487.  Jefferson  City,  1874. 

Adolf  Schmidt. — The  lead  region  of  Central  Missouri.  Geological  Survey  of  Mis- 
souri, I,  503-577.  Jefferson  City,  1874. 

J.  R.  Gage. — Lead  mines — southeast  Missouri.  Geological  Survey  of  Missouri,  I, 
602-637.  Jefferson  City,  1874. 

Arthur  Winslow. — Lead  and  zinc  deposits  of  Missouri.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min. 
Eng.,  XXIV,  634-689.  New  York,  1895. 

Arthur  Winslow. — Lead  and  zinc  deposits.  Missouri  Geological  Survey,  VI  and 
VII.  Jefferson  City,  1894. 

C.  E.  Siebenthal. — Structural  features  of  the  Joplin  district.  Economic  Geology,  I, 
119-128.  1906. 

F.  L.  Clerc. — The  ore-deposits  of  the  Joplin  region,  Missouri.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst. 
Min.  Eng.,  XXXVIII,  320-343.  New  York,  1908. 

"C.  E.  Siebenthal. — Mineral  resources  of  northeastern  Oklahoma.  Bui.  340,  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey,  187-230.  Washington,  1908. 

"S.  F.   Emmons. — Geology  and  mining  industry  of  Leadville.     Monograph   XII.    U.   S. 

Geological  Survey.     Washington,   1886. 

Max  Boehmer. — -The  genesis  of  the  Leadville  ore-deposits.  Bui.  Amer.  lust.  Min. 
Eng.,  B  8,  119-122.  Feb.,  1910. 


173 


174  LEAD. 

Montana. 

Lead  produced  from  argentiferous  galena  in  silver  mining. 
Utah. 

The  silver  mines  yield  much  lead  as  a  by-product. 
The  ore  occurs  as  replacement' in  Carboniferous  limestone. 
Idaho. 

The  Coeur  d'Alene  district.13 

Lead-silver  ores,  in  highly  faulted  and  folded  quartzites  and  schists. 
They  are  supposed  to  have  originated  by  precipitation  from  hot 

solutions. 

Veins  are  of  large  size. 

Ore  is  a  filling  and  silicious  replacement  along  fault  cracks. 
Galena  and  siderite  are  the  principal  minerals. 
New  Mexico. 

Lead  produced  from  argentiferous  galena  in  silver  mining. 
Magdalena  district. 

Non-argentiferous  lead  ores. 
Nevada. 

Lead  a  by-product  in  silver  mining. 

Relative  importance  of  the  different  regions  of  the  United  States. 
Lead  was  first  smelted  in  the  United  States  in  1825 ;  in  1872  the  silver-lead 
ores  came  into  the  market. 

"Ransome    and    Calkins. — The    Coeur    d'Alene    mining    district.       Professional    Paper, 
U.   S.    Geological   Survey,   62.     Washington,    1908. 


175 


LEAD. 

THE.  LEAD  PRODUCED  BY  THE  LERD 
PRODUCING  STATES   SINCE    1873. 
JOPLIN  DISTRICT 
IDAHO  AND  MONTANA 
m  UTAH 


Fig.  78. 


LEAD. 

~-   Tut    PRODUCTION    OF    LEAD 
BY  THE.  CHIEF   LEAD   PRO- 
DUCING COUNTRIES 

SINCE:  1975. 


Fig.    79. 


178  •  TIN. 


TIN.1 

Tin  is  a  white  metal  having  a  low  specific  gravity  (6.54).     It  is  soft, 
rather  brittle,  and  does  not  easily  corrode  or  rust. 

Uses. 

Manufacture  of  alloys:  pewter,  bronze,  britannia  metal,  gun   metal,  and 

bell  metal. 
As  tin  plate. 
Tin  foil. 

For  calico  printing  in  the  form  of  salts  with  acids. 
For  tinning  water  and  gas  pipes. 

Ores. 

Tin  is  mined  only  as  Cassiterite  (SnO),  tin  78.67,  oxygen  21.33. 
Stannite  (perhaps  Cu2S.FeS.SnS2),  tin  27.5,  copper  29.5,  iron  13.1,  sulphur 
29.9.     It  sometimes  contains  zinc.      (Sn  27,  Cu  30,  Fe  13,  S  30.) 

Modes   of   Occurrence   and   Association.2 

Tin  ores  are  found  in,  or  associated  with,  granites,  and  as  placer  deposits 

in  the  form  of  stream  tin. 
The   stream   deposits  are   derived   from   the   granites,   and   are   the   chief 

source  of  supply. 

Distribution. 

Geological. 

Tin  occurs  as  impregnations  in  pegmatite  veins  and  granites,  ranging  in 
age   from  pre-Cambrian   to   Tertiary.     Placer  deposits   are   usually 
of  Pleistocene  age. 
Geographical. 

The  tin  deposits  of  Cornwall8  and  Devonshire,  England,  have  been 
worked  for  2,000  years. 

'W.  de  L.  Benedict.— Tin.     The  Mineral  Industry,  I,  439-462.     New  York,  1892. 

=F.  L.  Hess  end  L.  C.  Graton.—  The  occurrence  and  distribution  of  tin.  Bui.  260, 
U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  161-187.  Washington,  1905.  (Contains  bibliography.) 

Sydney  Fawns.— Tin  deposits  of  the  world.  2nd  edition.  London,  1905.  (Contains 
bibliography.) 

Arthur  G.  Charleton. — Tin:  describing  the  chief  methods  of  mining,  dressing  and 
smelting.  London,  1884. 

3E.  Skewes. — The  Red  River  tin  stream,  Cornwall.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal, 
LXXIV,  178-180.  New  York,  1902. 

«T.   A.    Phillips   and   Henry   Louis. — A   treatise  on  ore  deposits.     Tin,   28-31,    197-231. 

London,   1896. 
C    Le  Neve  Foster. — On  the  great  flat  lode  of   Redruth,   etc.      Quarterly  Journal   of 

the   Geological   Society,    XXXIV,   640-659.      London,    1878. 


179 


180  TIN. 

The  ore  occurs  as  sulphides  in  slate  at  the  contact  with  granite.4 
Copper  and  zinc  are  associated  with  the  tin  near  the  surface. 
Tin  deposits  elsewhere  in  Europe. 

Prussia :    secondary   replacement   in   granite. 
Russia:  quartz  veins  in  granite  and  schist. 
The  tin  of  the  East  Indies. 
The  Malay   Peninsula.5 

In    the    Malay    Peninsula    tin    impregnates   old   granite   and   quartz 
veins.     Mining  is  principally  in  the  alluvial  and  placer  gravels. 
These  deposits  yield  75%  of  the  world's  supply. 
Islands  of  Banca  and  Biliton  off  Sumatra. 

Cassiterite    impregnating    granite  and    concentrated    in    stream    de- 
posits. 

Australia:  Queensland,0  Victoria,  and  Xew  South  Wales.7 
China. 

Bolivia :  at  Potosi  tin  is  a  by-product  of  silver.8 
Argentina. 
Japan. 

South  Africa.9     Placer  mining  of  stream  tin. 
Tasmania.10 

Tin  in  America. 

Mexico  produces  small  quantities  of  tin.11 
In  Durango  the  ore  occurs  in  pockets  in  trachyte. 

"P.    Doyle. — On   some   tin   deposits   of   the    Malayan   Peninsula.      Quarterly    Journal   of 

the  Geological  Society,  XXXV,  229-232.     London,  1879. 
J.  de   Morgan. — Mines  d'etain  du   royaume  de  Perak.     Annales  des   Mines,   8me.  ser., 

IX,   408-442.      Paris,    1886. 
Charles   M.   Rolker. — The   alluvial   tin-deposits  of   Siak,   Sumatra.     Trans.   Amer.   Inst. 

Min.  Eng.,  XX,  50-84.     New  York,   1892. 
J.    B.    Scrivenor. — The    Lahat   "pipe":    A   description   of   a    tin    ore    deposit   in    Perak. 

Quar.    Jour.    Geological    Society,    LXY,    382-389.      London,    1909. 

Frank   Owen. — A   review   of   the   tin   industry   of   the    Malay   Peninsula.      Mineral    In- 
dustry,   IX,    646-656.      New    York,    1901. 
K.    Van    Dort.— Tin   mining   in    Siam.      Engineering   and    Mining   Journal,    LXXXIV, 

723-727.     New   York,    1907. 
R.  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jr.— The  tin  deposits  of  the  Malay  Peninsula.     Journal  of  Geology, 

XI,    135-154.      Chicago,    1903. 

6G.    W.    Williams. — Tin   mining   and   milling   in    North    Queensland.      Engineering   and 

Mining  Journal,    LXXXVII,    1092.      New    York,    1909. 
7T.    W.    E.    David.— Geology    of    the    Vegetable    Creek    tin-mining   fields   of    the    New 

England   district,   New   South   Wales.      Geological    Survey   of  New   South    Wales, 

4-169.      Sydney,    1887. 

•W.   R.    Rumbold. — The  origin  of  the   Bolivian  tin  deposits.     Economic   Geology,    IV, 
321-364.      June,    1909. 

»\V.    R.    Rumbold. — The    South    African   tin   deposits.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng., 

XXXIX,    783-789.      New    York,    1909. 
10Geo.    A.    Walker. — Report    on    the    tin    mining    district    of    Ben    Lomond,    Tasmania. 

Report  of   Sec.   of   Mines,   Tasmania,    1900,    302-342.      Hobart,    1901. 
"W.    R.    Ingalls. — The    tin-deposits    of    Durango,    Mexico.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 

Eng.,    XXV,    146-163.      New    York,    1896. 


181 


182  TIN. 

Pockets  and  impregnations  of  cassiterite  in  Tertiary  rhyolite  and  along 

the  contacts  with  Cretaceous  limestones  and  shales. 

The  United  States  at  present  produces  no  tin.  The  principal  regions  where 
tin  is  known  in  this  country  are  the  Southern  California  region,  the 
Black  Hills  region  of  South  Dakota,  and  Alaska.  Although  small 
quantities  of  tin  are  found  elsewhere,  these  are  the  only  localities  now 
known  where  the  deposits  promise  to  be  of  any  value. 
Tin  of  the  Black  Hills." 

Harney's  Peak;  mode  of  occurrence. 
Tin  of  Southern  California.13 
Temescal  mines. 

Mode  of  occurrence :  in  granite  intrusions  in  slate  and  schist. 
Replacement  of  the  granite  by  solution  or  vapors  along  fissures. 
Tin  in  North  and   South   Carolina.14 

Pegmatite  dikes  carry  original  cassiterite  more  or  less  concentrated  at 

places. 
Texas.18 

Quartz  veins  carrying  tin  cut  granite  which  also  contains  a  little  tin 

near  the  contacts. 
Washington.16 

Black  crystalline  cassiterite  occurs  near  Spokane  as  an  original  con- 
stituent in  Archean  metamorphic  rocks  and  in  pegmatite,  aplite, 
and  quartz  veins. 
Alaska.11 

Stream  tin  is  found  on  Buck  Creek. 

At  Lost  River  dikes  and  granite  cut  Silurian  limestone  and  carrying 
cassiterite. 

"W.    P.    Blake. — Tin-ore    veins   in   the    Black   Hills   of   Dakota.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst 
Min.   Eng.,   XIII,   691-696.     New  York,    1885.     Eleventh   Census,    1890,  257-265. 

"H.  G.  Hanks. — Fourth  annual  report  of  the  State  Mineralogist  of  California,  115-123. 

Sacramento,   1884. 

H.    W.    Fairbanks. — The   tin    deposits    at   Temescal,    Southern    California.      American 
Journal   of   Science,   CLIV,   39-42.     New  Haven,    1897. 

"F.    L.    Hess. — Tin    deposits   of   North   and    South    Carolina.      Engineering    Magazine, 
10-20.      October,    1906. 

"W.    H.    Weed.— The    El    Paso    tin    deposits.      Bui.    178,    U.    S.    Geological    Survey. 
Washington,   1901. 

"A.    J.    Collier.— Tin    ore    at    Spokane,    Washington.      Bui.    340D,    U.    S.    Geological 
Survey,    67-77.      Washington,    1908. 

"F.    L.    Hess.— Tin    in Alaska.      Bui.    260,    U.    S.    Geological    Survey,    181. 

Washington,    1905. 
A.   J.    Collier.— The    tin    deposits    of   the    York    region,    Alaska.      Bui.    229.      U.    S. 

Geological   Survey.     Washington,   1904.     Bibliography. 
A.  Knopf.— Geology  of  the  Seward  Peninsula   tin  deposits,  Alaska.     Bui.  358,  U.   S. 

Geological   Survey.     Washington,    1908. 
A.    H.    Fay. — Geology    and    mining    of    the    tin-deposits    of    Cape    Prince    of    Wales, 

Alaska.     Trans.  Amer.  Inst.   Min.  Eng.,  XXXVIII,   664-682.     New   York,   1908. 

(Bibliography.) 


183 


184 


TIN. 

THE  VALUE  OF  THE  TIN  AND  TIN-PLATE 
IMPORTED   INTO  THE  UNITED 
STATES     SINCE    1867. 

i  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1  i.i  i  u.i  M  . !  i_L.  r~ ~m T i .  1 1 1  ]  i  i  1 1 1 


Fig. 


185 


Fig.  81. 


186  MANGANESE. 


MANGANESE.1 

Manganese  is  a  brittle  silver-white  metal  about  as  heavy  as  iron.     It  is 
fusible  at  only  the  highest  temperatures. 

Uses. 

The  chief  use  of  manganese  is  in  the  manufacture  of  steel. 

Spiegeleisen  has  less  than  20  per  cent  of  manganese;  ferro-manganese  has 

more  than  20  per  cent  of  manganese. 
For  coloring  and  decolorizing  glass  and  pottery. 
In  the  manufacture  of  bromine  and  chlorine. 
In  making  colors  for  calico  printing. 
For  making  dryers  used  in  paint. 
As  disinfectants. 
In  the  manufacture  of  oxygen. 
Leclanche  electric  battery. 

Ores. 

Oxides. 

Psilomelane   (MnO=77.85,  variable). 
Pyrolusite,  manganese  dioxide  (MnOz),  Mn=63.2. 
Braunite   (Mn=69.68),  silica  10,  manganese  protoxide  11.7,  manganese 

sesquioxide  78.3. 
Wad,  or  bog  manganese  is  maganese  oxide  and  from  10  to  25%  water. 

Carbonates. 

Rhodochrosite  (manganese  protoxide  61.7,  COz  38.3). 

Silicates. 

Relative  importance  of  different  ores  in  the  production  of  manganese. 
The   oxides   are   the   most   important,   psilomelane   being  the   principal 
mineral.     The  carbonates  are  next  in  importance. 

Occurrence  and  Association. 

Manganese  is  often  deposited  with  and  in  sedimentary  beds;  the  subse- 
quent decomposition  of  the  rocks  leaves  the  ore  as  lumps  in  residual 
clays. 

The  great  deposits  of  southern  Russia  are  in  horizontal  beds  between  over- 
lying sandstones  and  underlying  limestones. 

*R.   A.   F.   Penrose,   Jr. — Manganese:     its  uses,   ores  and   deposits.      Ann.   rep.   of  the 
Geological   Survey   of  Arkansas   for    1890,    I.      Little   Rock,    1891. 

H.    Carrington    Bolton. — Index    to    the    literature    of    manganese.      Annals    of    the 
Lyceum  of  Natural  History,  XI,  208-249.     New  York,    1875. 


187 


188 


MANGANESE. 


ORIGINAL  CONDITION  OF  THE    ROCKS. 


FIRST  STAGE  OF  DECOMPOSITION. 


SECOND  STAGE   OF  DECOMPOSITION . 


THIRD   STAGE  OF  DECOMPOSITION. 


E  CHERT  Hill  MANGANESE-BEARING  CLAY  L_HJIZARD  LIM 


ST.CLAIR  LIMESTONE 


L^JSACCHAROIOAL  SANDSTONE 


Fig.    82. — Ideal    sections   showing   the    formations   of   manganese-bearing   clay    from   the 
St.   Clair  limestone  in  Arkansas.       (Penrose.) 


189 


190 


MANGANESE. 


Distribution. 
Geological. 

Manganese  nodules  dredged  from  the  deep  sea.2 

Manganese  is  found  in  .all  geologic  horizons. 

Principal  manganese  horizons  in  America  are  Cambrian,  Silurian,  and 

Carboniferous. 

Probable  source  of  manganese.3 
Geographical. 

Manganese  deposits  of  the  Caucasus.4 
Furnish  40%  of  the  world's  supply. 
The  manganese  deposits  of  Brazil." 

Brazil  furnishes  20%  of  the  world's  supply. 
W  I  E 


Fig.    83. — Section   at   and   near    Bahia,    Brazil,    showing   the   structural    relations   of   the 
manganese    deposits    at    Pedras    Pretas. 


Fig.    84. — The    mangar 

near    Bahia,    Brazil,    exposed   by    pits 
and     shafts. 


ZC.  Wyville  Thomson.— Voyage  of  the  Challenger,  II,   15.     New  York.    1878. 
Alexander    Agassiz,     Cruise    of    the    Albatross.       Science,     New    series,     X,     833-841. 
New  York,   1899. 

SW.    Mackie. — The    conditions    under    which    manganese    dioxide    has    been    deposited. 
Geological  Magazine,  IX,  558-560.     London,   1902. 

4Frank    Drake. — The    manganese-ore    industry    of    the    Caucasus.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst. 
Min.    Eng.,    XXVIII,    191-208.      New   York,    1899. 

BA.    R.    Lisbon. — Le  manganese  au   Bresil.     Ann.   des   Mines.     9me.   ser.    XV,    115-123. 

Paris,    1899. 
J.   C.    Branner. — The  manganese-deposits   of   Bahia   and    Minas,    Brazil      Trans.    Amer. 

Inst.    Min.    Eng.,   XXIX,   756-770.      New   York,    1900. 

H.    K.    Scott. — The    manganese    ores    of    Brazil.      Jour.    Iron    and    Steel    Inst.,    LVII, 
179-208.      London,    1900. 


191 


192 


MANGANESE. 


The  Panama,  Colombia,  deposits.0 
Canada.' 

Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  are  small  producers. 
India.8 

The  mines  of  Madras  make  India  second  in  production. 
Cuba." 

Open   cut   mines.     The   ore   is   in  pockets   in    soft    sandstone   and   is 
separated  by  washing. 

Manganese  of  the   United  States.10 
The  Appalachian  region. 

Manganese  occurs  in  rocks  of  several  horizons  from  the  Archean  to  the 

Tertiary. 
Georgia11  near  Cartersville. 

Geological  horizons  and  occurrences  of  the  ore. 

ff 


V 


A  B 

Fig.     85.- — Section    showing    the    geology    at    the     Layton     manganese    mine,     Georgia. 

Manganese   and   iron   are    shown   by   the   black  band    lying   between 

sandstone    on    the    right    and    manganese-bearing 

clay  on  the  left.       (Penrose.) 

'E.    J.    Chibas. — The   manganese-deposits    of    the    Department    of  Panama.    Republic    of 

Colombia.     Trans.   Amer.   Inst.   Min.   Eng.,   XXVII,   63-76.  New   York,    1898. 

E.    G.    Williams. — The   manganese   industry   of   the    Department  of   Panama,    Republic 

of    Colombia.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XXXIII.  197-234.      New    York, 
1903. 

7L.   W.   Bailey. — The  mineral    resources  of  the   province   of   New   Brunswick.      Geolog- 
ical  Survey   of  Canada.     Ann.    rep.      New   series,   X,    126.      Ottawa,    1899. 

8L.    Leigh    Fermor. — Manganese-ore    deposits    of    India.       Memoirs    of    the    Geological 
Survey   of   India,    XXXVII,   pts.    1-4.      Calcutta,    1909. 

•A.    C.    Spencer. — The   manganese   deposits    of    Santiago   province,    Cuba.      Engineering 

and    Mining   Journal,    LXXIV,    247.      New    York,    1902. 

A.    E.    Heighway. — Manganese    mining    in    Cuba.      Engineering    and    Mining   Journal, 
LXXV,   255.     New  York,    1903. 

10Edmund   Cecil  Harder. — Manganese  deposits  of  the  United   States.      Bui.   427.      U.   S. 
Geological    Survey.      Washington,     1910.       (Bibliography.) 

J1T.     L.     Watson.— Geological     relations    of     the    manganese-ore     deposits     of     Georgia. 

Trans.    Amer.    Inst.   Min.   Eng.,    XXXIV,   207-253.      New   York,    1904. 
T.    L.    Watson.— The    manganese    ore-deposits    of    Georgia.      Economic    Geology,    IV, 

46-55.     Jan.-Feb.,    1909. 

S.    W.    McCallie.— A    preliminary   report   on   the   mineral   resources   of   Georgia.      Bui. 
23,    Geological    Survey   of   Georgia,    126-135.      Atlanta,    1910. 


193 


194 


MANGANESE. 


Fig.  86. — Section  exposed  in  a  pit  at  the  Dobbins  mine  in  Georgia.      The  black  bands 
represent  manganese  ore,  and  the  shaded  portions  clays.     (Penrose.) 

Virginia.12 

The  ore  occurs  as  nodules  in  clay  in  natural  basins. 
Vermont. 

Other  localities  of  the  Appalachian  region. 
The  north  Arkansas  region,  near  Batesville.1 


Fig.  87. — Section  at  the  O'Flinn  manganese  mine  in  north  Arkansas.      The  manganese 
is   interbedded    with    the    St.    Clair    limestone.       (Penrose.) 


Fig.   88. — Section  in  the  manganese   region  of  North  Arkansas,  showing  the   formation 

of   manganese-bearing    clay   by    the    decay    of   the    St.    Clair 

limestone.       (Penrose.) 


195 


196 


MANGANESE. 


2E.    K.    Judd. — The    Crimora    manganese    mine.      Engineering 
LXXXIII,   478.      New   York,    1907. 


nd    Mining    Journal, 

The  ore  is  found  in  clays  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  the  St.  Clair 

limestone   (Silurian). 
Texas. 

W 


Fig.   89. — Section   showing  the  mode  of  occurrence  of  manganese   in  limestone  on  the 
Lewis    lands,    Cebolla    valley,    Colorado.        (Penrose.) 

Colorado. 
California. 

Occurs  in  the  Franciscan  metamorphic  series. 
Nevada. 

The  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  Philippines.13 

Relative  importance  of  the  different  regions. 

1,  Russia ;  2,  India ;  3,  Brazil. 

In  1905  Russia  produced  447,000  tons. 

In  1905  India  produced  284,100  tons. 

In  1905  Brazil  produced  262,000  tons. 


3W.    D.    Smith. — The manganese    deposits    of    Ilocos    Norte Philippine 

Journal  of  Science,   II,    145-177.      Manila,   1907. 


197 


198 


MANGANESE. 


MANGANESE 

"THE.  MAN6ANE.SE 
PRODUCED  AND  IMPORT- 
ED  INTO  THE.   UNITED 
STATES   8INCE  I88O. 


Fig.  90. 


199 


200  COBALT  AND  NICKEL. 


COBALT  AND  NICKEL.1 

Cobalt  resembles  iron  in  appearance,  but  is  harder,  more  tenacious  and 
ductile,  and  slightly  heavier. 

Uses  of  Cobalt. 
As  a  pigment  for  blue  paints  and  porcelain;   chemical   uses,  and  in  the 

manufacture  of  cobalt  steel. 
Most   cobalt  is  a  by-product  of  nickel. 

Uses  of  Nickel. 

Nickel  plating;  manufacture  of  German  silver2  which  is  an  alloy  of  nickel, 

copper,  and  zinc,  and  is  used  for  cheap  jewelry. 
Manufacture  of  steel. 

Effect  of  nickel  on  steel.3 

Armor  steel4  contains  2>l/2%  nickel  and  V±%  carbon. 
Coins. 
Cobalt  and  nickel  are  always  associated  in  nature. 

The  Ores  of  Cobalt  and  Nickel. 

Linnaeite  (Co  57.9,  S  42.1)   is  a  cobalt  sulphide  with  some  of  the  cobalt 

replaced  by  nickel. 
Nine  analyses  have  the  sulphur  ranging  from  39  to  43,  cobalt  from  11 

to  45,  and  nickel  from  12  to  42. 
Millerite  (Ni  64.6,  S  35.3)  is  a  nickel  sulphide. 
Niccolite  (Ni  43.9,  As  56.1)  is  a  nickel  arsenide. 
Garnierite  is  a  variable  hydrous  silicate  of  nickel  and  magnesia. 
Thirteen  analyses  of  garnierite  give  silica  35.45  to  50.15,  nickel  oxide 

10.20  to  45.15,  magnesia  oxide  2.47  to  21.70,  water  5.27  to  21.65. 
Pentlandite  (Fe.Ni)  S  is  a  sulphide  of  iron  and  nickel. 

Sulphur  36%,  iron  42%,  and  nickel  22%. 
Annabergite  (Ni.As)   S. 
The  last  two  are  new  minerals  found  at  Sudbury,  Ontario.8 

'Mineral  Industry,   I,   343-358;   VI,   495-506.      1892. 

'Robert   A.    Hadfield.— Alloys    of    iron   and   nickel.      The    Inst.    Civ.    Engs.      London, 
1899. 

"D.  H.    Browne. — Nickel-steel:    a   synopsis   of   experiment   and   opinion.      Trans.   Amer. 
Inst.   Min.   Eng.,   569-648,   XXIX.     New   York,   1900. 

4H.  F.  J.  Porter. — Nickel  steel  as  used  in  commercial  work.     Engineering  and   Mining 
Journal,    LXXII,   232.      New   York,    1901. 

»W.     G.    Miller.— Cobalt-nickel    arsenides    and    silver    in    Ontario.       Engineering    and 
Mining   Journal,    LXXVI,    888-889.      New   York,    1903. 


201 


202  COBALT  AND  NICKEL. 

Occurrence  and   Association. 

The  ores  of  cobalt  and  nickel  occur  mostly  as  segregations  in  eruptive 
rocks  and  in  veins.  Some  cobalt  and  nickel  is  obtained  as  a  by-product 
in  lead  mining. 

Distribution  of  Cobalt  and  Nickel. 

The  most  important  cobalt-nickel  bearing  regions  of  the  world  are  the 
Sudbury  region  in  Ontario,  Canada;  New  Caledonia,  and  Norway 
and  Sweden. 

The  New  Caledonia  region  is  about  1,000  miles  east  of  Australia." 
Irregular  veins  and  pockets  of  garnierite  in  serpentine. 

The  ore  contains  10%  nickel. 
The  ore  was  discovered  in  1867;  the  mines  have  been  worked  since 

1874. 
Norway.1 

The  ore  is  a  magnetic  nickel-iron  pyrite,  impregnating  gabbro,   and 
contains  from  1  to  1.2%  Ni.    The  nickel  is  a  replacement  of  iron. 
Sweden. 
Great  Britain.8 

Vein  of  Asbolane  (Co.  Ni.  Mn.  Fe,  Cu.)  SiO.  in  Carboniferous  lime- 
stone is  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  a  body  of  cobaltiferous 
iron  ore. 
Germany. 
Hungary. 

Cobalt  and  Nickel  in  North  America. 

The  Sudbury   (Ontario)    region  of  Canada  is  the  only  American  region 

important  in  the  production  of  cobalt  and  nickel.9 

The  ore  is  nickeliferous  pyrrhotite  and  chalcopyrite  in  fractured  zones 
made  by  intrusive  diorite  dikes  in  Huronian  gneiss  and  igneous  rocks. 
The  ore  is  supposed  to  have  originated  through  magmatic  segre- 
gration. 

•E.    Heurteau. — Minerals    de    nickel  (de    la    Nouvelle-Caledonie).      Ann.    des    Mines, 

7me  ser.   IX,   390-398.     Paris,  1876. 

Nickel  mining  in  New  Caledonia.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXIX,  735. 
New  York,  1900. 

7Joseph  Garland. — On  the  nickeliferous  pyrites  of  Berg-Nickel  mine  in  the  island 
of  Senjen,  Norway.  Trans.  Royal  Geological  Society  of  Cornwall,  X,  pt.  V, 
161-164.  Penzance,  1883. 

8C.  Le  Neve  Foster. — On  the  occurrence  of  cobalt  ore  in  Flintshire.  Trans.  Royal 
Geological" Society  of  Cornwall,  X,  pt.  IV,  107-112.  Penzance,  1882. 

•E.    D.    Peters,    Jr. — The    Sudbury    ore-deposits.      Trans.    Amer.     Inst.    Min.     Eng., 

XVIII,  278-289.     New   York,    1890. 
A.    M.    Charles. — The    Sudbury    nickel    mines    in    Ontario.      Engineering    and    Mining 

Journal,    LXVII,    144.      New    York,    1899. 
Chas.  W.  Dickson. — The  ore-deposits  of  Sudbury,  Ontario.     Trans.  Amer.   Inst.   Min. 

Eng.,   XXXIV,   2-67.      New   York,    1904.      (Bibliography.) 
A.   E.    Barlow. — Origin   and  relations  of   the   nickel   and   copper  deposits   of   Sudbury, 

Ontario,   Canada.     Economic   Geology,   I,   454-466;    545-563.      1905. 


203 


204  COBALT  AND  NICKEL. 

The  Cobalt,  Ontario,  mining  district.10 

The  ore  is  in  Huronian  gneiss  and  diabase  derived  from  the  diabase. 

Silver  is  the  principal  metal. 
Cobalt  and  nickel  regions  of  the  United  States. 

Cobalt  and  nickel  occurs  in  several  localities  in  the  United  States,  but 

they  have  so  far  proved  of  little  or  no  importance. 
At  the  mine  La  Motte  in  Missouri  some  nickel  is  obtained  in  smelting 

the  lead. 
Pennsylvania.11 
Cap  Mine,  Lancaster  county,  was  worked  for  copper  prior  to  1852;  the 

mine  is  now  about  exhausted. 
Virginia.12 

Nickel  occurs  with  pyrrhotite  in  gabbro  breaking  through  schists  of 
sedimentary  and  igneous  origin.  The  ore  occurs  as  secondary  re- 
placement of  silicates. 

10T.    A.    Rickard.— Cobalt,    Ontario.      Mining    and    Scientific    Press.      San    Francisco, 

1907. 

W.    G.    Miller. — The    cobalt-nickel    arsenide    and    silver    deposits    of    Temiskaming. 
Report  of  the  Bifreau  of  Mines,  pt.   II,   212.     Toronto,    1908. 

"J.    F.    Kemp. — The    nickel    mine    at    Lancaster    Cap,    Pa.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 
Eng.,   XXIV,  620-633.     New   York,    1895.      (Bibliography  of  the  Gap  mines.) 

"T.    L.    Watson. — The    occurrence    of    nickel    in    Virginia.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 
Eng.,  XXXVIII,   683-697.     New  York,   1908. 


205 


206  CHROMIUM. 


CHROMIUM.1 

Chromium  is  a  gray-white  metal  which  is  fusible  only  at  very  high  tem- 
peratures. 

Uses. 
In  manufacturing  chrome  steel  for  armor  plate,   for  shoes  and  dies   for 

stamp  mills,  and  for  burglar-proof  safes.2 
Chrome  steel  contains  2%  chromium. 

Chrome  steel  has  60%  higher  tensile  strength  than  other  kinds  of  steel. 
As  a  pigment  in  certain  greens  and  yellows. 
In  the  tanning  of  leather. 
Refractory   material   for    furnace   linings.3     For   this   purpose   the   ore   is 

crushed,  washed,  and  pressed  into  bricks. 

Ores. 

Chromium  is  not  found  native,  but  occurs  principally  as  the  chromate  of 
iron,  or  chromite  (FeCr204)  :  chromium  sesquioxide  68,  iron  protoxide 
32.  It  is  a  greenish  black  mineral. 

Occurrence. 

It  always  occurs  in  serpentine  as  irregular  masses  or  pockets. 

Probable  origin  of  the  chromium  segregation  found  in  serpentine.4 
Chromium  is  considered  as  a  first  cooling  product  of  peridotite,  and  ser- 
pentine a  later  alteration  product. 

Distribution. 

Canada.5 

Chromium,  imported  from  Asia  Minor6  which  furnishes  the  bulk  of  the 
world's  supply. 

*J.  E.  Came. — Notes  on  chromic  iron  ore.  Mineral  resources  (of  N.  S.  Wales),  I. 
Sydney,  1898. 

2F.  L.  Garrison. — Alloys  of  iron  and  chromium.     Sixteenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological 

Survey,  pt.   Ill,   610-614.     Washington,   1895. 
Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXIII,  89,  136,  207,  375.     New  York,  1897. 

8Wm.  Glenn. — Chromite  as  a  hearth-lining  for  a  smelting  furnace.  Engineering  and 
Mining  Journal,  LXXII,  637.  New  York,  1901. 

4J.  H.  Pratt. — The  occurrence,  origin,  and  chemical  composition  of  chromite.  En- 
gineering and  Mining  Journal,  LXVI,  696.  New  York,  1898. 

'Phillips    Thompson. — Chrome    ore    in    Canada.       Engineering    and     Mining    Journal, 

LXXXVIII,   726.     New  York,    1909. 

Fitz  Cirkel. — Report  on  the  chrome  iron  ore  deposits  in  the  eastern  townships  of 
Nova  Scotia  and  Quebec.  Bui.  29,  Mines  Branch,  Dept.  of  the  Interior  of 
Canada.  Ottawa,  1909. 

«R.  W.   Lane.— Chrome  in  Turkey.      Engineering  and   Mining  Journal,   LXXIY,   275. 

New  York,    1902. 

W.  F.  A.  Thomae. — Emery,  chrome-ore  and  other  minerals  in  the  Yillayet  of  Aidin, 
Asia  Minor.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXYIII,  208-225.  New  York, 
1898. 


207 


208  CHROMIUM. 

Chromium  in  the  United  States. 
Very  little  chromium  is  produced  in  the  U.  S. 
Appalachian  region7  in  Buncombe  county,  N.  C. 
California.8 

The  ore  in  California  occurs  in  small  irregular  pockets  in  serpentine. 
A  few  hundred  tons  are  produced  annually  and  used  locally. 

'William   Glenn. — Chrome   in   the   southern   Appalachian   region.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst. 

Min.   Eng.,   XXV,   481-499.     New   York,    1896. 
T.     H.     Pratt. — Chromite     in     North     Carolina.       Engineering    and     Mining     Journal, 

LXVII,    261.      New   York,    1899. 
T.    H.    Pratt. — The    chromite    deposits   of    North    Carolina.      Engineering    and    Mining 

Journal,   LXX,    190.     New   York,    1900. 

"Twelfth    rep.    California    State    Mineralogist,  35-38.      Sacramento,    1894.      Thirteenth 

rep.,   48-50.      Sacramento,    1896. 

E.    C.    Harder. — Some    chromite    deposits   in  Western   and    Central    California.      Bui. 

430D,   U.    S.   Geological   Survey,    19-35.  Washington,    1910. 


209 


CHROMIUM. 


CHROMIUM. 

THE  VALUE  or  THE 

CHROMIUM    IMPORTED 

AND  PRODUCED  IN  THE 

UNITED  STATES  SINCE 

1867. 


211 


212  PLATINUM. 


METALS    OF   THE    PLATINUM    GROUP. 

PLATINUM.1 

PJatinum  is  a  rare  metal ;  it  is  heavy,  silver-white,  ductile,  and  fusible 
only  at  a  very  high  temperature  (1779°  C.) 

Uses. 

It  was  used  for  coinage  in  Russia  from  1828  to  1845. 

For  the  manufacture  of  chemical,  electrical,  and  surgical  apparatus. 

Kettles  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid. 

In  mounting  diamonds  and  other  costly  stones. 

Ores. 

Native  platinum  occurs  alloyed  with  other  metals  of  the  platinum  group. 
It  is  often  associated  with  gold.2 


Fig.    92. — The    largest    platinum    nugget   ever   found    in    America.       Natural    size,    3"    x 
2J4";   weight,   nearly  two  pounds;    from  the  west  coast   of   South 
America.        (Baker    &    Co.,    Newark,    N.    J.) 

Sperrylite  (PtAs2)  ;  arsenic  43.5,  platinum  56.5. 

1  J.    L.    Howe. — Bibliography    of   the    metals   of   the    platinum    group,    1748-1896. 
Chas.   Bullman.— The   mineral  industry,   I,   373-397.     New   York,    1893. 
J.     F.    Kemp.— Notes    on    platinum    and    its    associated    minerals.       Engineering    and 
Mining   Journal,   LXXIII,    512-513.      New   York,    1902. 

-.\.  Liversidge. — Crystalline  structure  of  gold  and  platinum  nuggets  and  gold  ingots. 
Journal  and  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  of  New  South  Wales,  XXXI, 
70-79.  Sydney,  1897. 


214  PLATINUM. 

Occurrence  and  Association.3 

In  Sumatra  platinum  is  associated  with  wollastonite. 
Chromite  is  the  commonest  associated  mineral. 

It  is  always  associated  in  the  original  rock  with  basic  olivine  peridotite. 
It  is  usually  mined  from  placers,  where  it  is  often  found  associated  with 

gold. 
At  the  Congo  Soco  mines  of  Brazil  it  was  formerly  taken  with  gold  from 

soft  schists. 

Distribution. 

Platinum  is  mined  at  but  few  places  in  the  world.     Most  of  the  world's 

supply  comes  from  the  Ural  Mountains  of  Russia.4 
The  placers  have  been  exhausted,  and  dredging  is  now  the  usual  method 

of  mining  it. 

Before  1830  the  gravels  yielded  2.7  oz.  per  cubic  yard. 
In  1830-1838  the  gravels  yielded  l/2  oz.  per  cubic  yard. 
In  1908  the  gravels  yielded  .09  oz.  per  cubic  yard. 

Borneo,    Australia,    Colombia,    and    British    Columbia    all    supply    small 
amounts.      Brazil  formerly  furnished  a  considerable  quantity,  but  has 
ceased  to  be  a  producer. 
Discovery  reported  in  New  South  Wales.5 
The  gold  mines  of  California  yield  some  platinum.6 

It  occurs  in  the  beach  sands  of  the  Pacific  coast  where  the  sands  are 

derived  from  serpentines. 
Wyoming.7 

Sperrylite  is  disseminated  through  diorite. 

The  associated  minerals  are  copper,  iron,  and  covellite. 

3L.  Hundeshagen. — Occurrence  of  platinum.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal, 
LXXVIII,  344.  New  York,  1904. 

4V.  X.  Pravdinsky. — Russian  platinum  and  foreign  companies  in  Russia.  Engineering 
and  Mining  Journal,  LXXXIX,  1025-1026.  New  York,  1910. 

Daubree. — On  platinum  in  the  Urals.  Comptes  Rendus  de  1'Academie  des  Sciences, 
LXXX,  707-714.  Paris,  1875. 

C.  W.  Purington. — The  platinum  deposits  of  the  Tura  river-system,  Ural  Mountains, 
Russia.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXIX,  3-16.  New  York,  1900.  En- 
gineering and  Mining  Journal,  LXVII,  350-351.  New  York,  1899. 

M.  Laurent. — Notes  sur  1'industrie  de  1'or  et  due  platine  dans  1'Oural.  Annales  des 
Mines,  8me,  ser.  XVIII,  537-579.  Paris,  1890. 

L.    Tovey. — Dredging    for   platinum   in    the   Urals,    Russia.      Engineering    and    Mining 

Journal,   LXXXVI,   701-705.      New   York,    1908. 

"Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXI,  182,  1896;  LXII,  126,  220,  1896;  LXIII, 
333,  1897. 

J.  B.  Jacquet. — The  occurrence  of  platinum  'in  New  South  Wales.  Records  of  the 
Geological  Survey,  V,  pt.  I,  33-38.  Sydney,  1896. 

'David  T.  Day. — Notes  on  the  occurrence  of  platinum  in  North  America.  Trans. 
Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXX,  702-708.  New  York,  1901. 

7J.   F.   Kemp. — Platinum  in  the   Rambler 
for    1902,    244-250.      Washington,    1 


215 


216  IRIDIUM. 

Nevada.8 
Basic   dikes  penetrate    Paleozoic  gneisses   and   carry   pyrite,   magnetite, 

chalcopyrite,  gold,  and  platinum. 
Statistics. 

Price  of  refined  platinum  varies  from  $15  to  $38  an  ounce ;  it  was  $34 

in  1910. 
Production. 

Russia  produces  nearly  all  of  the  world's  platinum. 
Between  1890  and  1908  the  average  annual  production  of  that  country 

was  170,000  ounces. 
The  United  States  produces  from  100  to  1,400  ounces  a  year. 

IRIDIUM. 

Iridium  is  a  rare  metal,  extremely  hard,  lustrous,  and  steel-white.  It  has 
a  very  high  melting  point,  and  is  not  attacked  by  any  single  acid. 

Uses. 

In  alloys :  standard  weights  and  measures. 

As  a  coloring  matter  in  photography,  in  the  ceramic  arts,  and  in  jewelry. 
In  pointing  gold  pens,  fine  tools,  and  in  the  knife-edges  of  delicate  bal- 
ances. 

Iridium  plating. 
The  price  in  1901  was  $1.07  per  gram. 

Occurrence. 

Iridium  is  found  as  iridosmine  (alloy  of  iridium  with  osmium)  associated 
with  platinum,  in  Colombia,  province  of  Choco ;  in  the  Urals  of  Russia ; 
in  Australia;  it  is  found  also  in  the  gold-bearing  beach  sands  of 
northern  California.  Iridium  also  occurs  as  platiniridium  (alloy  of 
platinum  and  iridium)  and  in  almost  all  native  platinum. 

Very  little  iridium  is  used,  the  world's  production  being  but  a  few  tons 
annually. 

OSMIUM. 

Osmium  is  the  heaviest  and  most  difficultly  fusible  metal  known. 

Uses. 

It  is  used  in  the  form  of  iridosmine  for  pointing  pens  and  fine  tools. 
The  price  in  1910  was  94  cents  per  gram. 

"H.    Bancroft. — Platinum    in    southeastern    Nevada.        Bui.    430D,    U.    S.    Geological 
Survey,  44-51.     Washington,    1910. 


217 


218  PALLADIUM. 

Occurrence. 

Osmium  occurs  alloyed  with  iridium  (iridosmine),  and  alloyed  with  plati- 
num. It  also  occurs  in  laurite,  which  is  essentially  ruthenium  sul- 
phide. 


PALLADIUM. 

Palladium  is  ductile  and  malleable;  it  is  a  whitish  steel-gray  metal  with 
metallic  lustre. 

Uses. 

For  finely  graduated  scales. 

Compensating  balance  wheels  and  hair  springs  for  watches. 
Some  mathematical  and  surgical  instruments. 
The  price  in  1901  was  94  cents  per  gram. 

Occurrence. 

Palladium  occurs  native  and  alloyed  with  gold  platinum  and  iridium. 


219 


220  ALUMINUM. 


ALUMINUM.1 

Aluminum  is  a  tin  white  metal  with  a  low  specific  gravity  (2.5  to  2.7)  and 
is  as  hard  as  silver.  It  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat  and  electricity, 
and  is  not  readily  attacked  by  acids  or  moisture. 

Uses.2 

Conductor  of  electricity. 
Manufacture  of  alloys. 
Aluminum-copper  alloys. 
Aluminum-iron  alloys. 

Aluminum-magnesium  alloys  or  magnalium. 
Manufacture  of  articles  requiring  strength  and  lightness  and  of  articles 

that  should  not  corrode. 

The  high  price  of  aluminum  prevented  its  general  use  until  a  few  years 
ago. 

Sources. 

Metallic  aluminium  or  aluminum  does  not  occur  in  nature;  the  metal  has 
been  known  since  1827,  but  it  is  only  since  1889  that  the  price  of  it  has 
been  below  $2.00  per  pound.  It  was  formerly  made  from  cryolite ;  it  is 
now  made  from  bauxite.* 

Cryolite  (Na8  A1F8),  fluorine  54.4,  aluminum  12.8,  sodium  32.8,  was  for- 
merly used  in  the  manufacture  of  aluminum. 

The  largest  known  deposits  of  cryolite  are  on  the  west  coast  of  Green- 
land, 12  miles  from  Arksuk,  where  it  occurs  in  a  granite  vein  in 
gneiss.3 
Bauxite  (A12O3.2H2O)  :  alumina  73.9,  water  26.1. 

Aluminum  is  now  made  indirectly  from  bauxite,  which  is  called  alu- 
minum ore.4 

It  can  be  made  from  kaolin  and  common  clays,  but  the  cost  of  extrac- 
tion from  these  substances  is  much  greater  than  from  bauxite. 

*J.    W.    Richards. — Aluminum;    its   history,    properties,    etc.      Third    edition.      Philadel- 
phia  and   London,    1896. 

A.    E.    Hunt,    J.    W.    Langley,    and    C.    M.    Hall. — The    properties    of   aluminum,    with 
some  information   relating  to  the  metal.     Trans.   Amer.   Inst.   Min.   Eng.,   XVIII, 
528-563.      New   York,    1890. 
J.    E.    Stcinmetz. — Aluminum:    considered    practically,    etc.      Jour.    Franklin    Institute, 

CL,    272-284.      Philadelphia,    1900. 
W.    C.    Phalen.— Aluminum.      Mineral    Resources    U.    S.    for    1908.      Pt.    I,    702-708. 

Washington,    1909.      (Bibliography.) 
*J.    W.    Richards. — Recent   progress   in   the   aluminum   industry.      Jour.    Franklin    Inst., 

CXLIX,   451-459.      Philadelphia,    1900. 
*J.    W.    Taylor. — On    the    cryolite    of   Evigtok,    Greenland.      puar.    Jour.    Geol.    Soc. 

London,  XII,  140-144.     London,   1856. 
W.    C.    Henderson. — Kryolith,    its   mining,    etc.      Jour.    Franklin    Inst.,    CXLY,    47-54. 

Philadelphia,    1898. 
•James    Sutherland. — The    preparation    of    alumina    from    bauxite.       Engineering    and 

Mining  Journal,   LXII,   320-322.      New   York,    1896. 

J.  C.   Branner.— The  bauxite  deposits  of  Arkansas.     Journal  of  Geology,   V,  263-289. 
Chicago,    1897.      (Bibliography.; 


221 


222 


ALUMINUM. 

444-H-Ht 


ALUMINUM 
THE  PRODUCTION  or 

ALUMINUM  BY  THE. 
,_     PRINCIPAL  PRODUCING 
COUNTRIES    SINCE  1889. 

ALSO   THE    PRICE    PER 
POUND. 
UNITED    STATES     


SWITZERLflNDl 

AND  V 

GERMANY 


FRANCE 

ENGLAND 


Fig.   93. 


223 


224  MERCURY. 

MERCURY  (QUICKSILVER). 

Quicksilver  is  a  lustrous,  tin-white  metal  which  differs  from  the  other 
metals  in  being  a  liquid  at  ordinary  temperatures ;  it  becomes  solid  at 
forty  degrees  below  zero.  (Faht.) 

Uses. 

In  forming  amalgams. 

The  amalgamation  process  in  extracting  gold  and  silver. 
In  silvering  mirrors. 
In  medicine  in  the  form  of  calomel. 
In  thermometers  and  mercurial  barometers. 
As  a  pigment,  especially  in  China,  and  formerly  by  the  American  Indians. 

Ores. 

Quicksilver  occurs  native,  usually  in  liquid  globules  scattered  through  the 

gangue,  but   sometimes  in  cavities  in  quantities  large  enough  to  be 

dipped  up. 
Cinnabar,   mercuric   sulphide    (HgS),   mercury  86.2,   sulphur   13.8,   is   the 

most  important  ore;  most  of  the  quicksilver  of  commerce  is  supplied 

from  it. 

Native   amalgam  of  mercury  with   silver. 
There  are  several  other  combinations  of  mercury,  but  they  are  of  little  or 

no  importance  as  ores. 

Modes  of  Occurrence. 

In  veins,  irregular  masses,  and  impregnations.  Confined  to  no  particular 
kind  of  country  rock.  The  principal  deposits  occur  in  regions  of  great 
disturbance,  and  of  former  igneous  activity,  and  are  newer  than  the  en- 
closing rock. 

All,  or  nearly  all,  are  contact  deposits  made  by  sublimation,  or  from  solu- 
tions of  dissolved  mercury. 

In  California  the  deposits  are  usually  associated  with  serpentine  and  their 
distribution  is  irregular. 

Distribution. 

Geologic. 

Quicksilver  deposits  are  confined  to  no  particular  horizon;  the  deposits 
of  Almaden,  Spain,  are  in  Silurian  rocks ;  those  of  New  Almaden, 
California,  are  in  rocks  supposed  to  be  of  Jurassic  age. 


226  MERCURY. 

Geographic. 

Although  quicksilver  has   a  wide  distribution,   nearly  all  of  the  metal 
of  commerce  is  supplied  from  Spain  (Almaden),  California,  Austria 
(Idria),  Russia,  Mexico,  and  Italy. 
China,  Peru,  and  Asia  Minor  also  produce  quicksilver. 
Spain. 

The  Almaden  mines1  of  Spain  are  the  most  important  in  the  world. 
The  ore  is  cinnabar,  in  three  parallel,  vertical,  vein-like  beds,  ap- 
proximately parallel  to  the  strike  of  country  rocks  of  Upper  Silurian 
slates  and  sandstones.  The  average  thickness  of  the  ore  deposits  is 
about  20  feet.  The  deposits  at  Almaden  are  very  persistent  and  of 
even  richness.  The  mines  have  been  worked  since  pre-historic 
times. 
Austria. 

Idria.    Ore :  some  native  metal,  but  mostly  cinnabar,  in  veins,  reticulated 
masses,  and  impregnations,  in  Triassic  schists,  limestones,  and  sand- 
stones.     The    gangue    minerals    are   quartz,    calcite,    and    dolomite. 
The  ore  becomes  richer  as  the  depth  increases. 
Italy  (Vallalta  region). 

Ore  is  cinnabar  in  impregnations  and  stringers  at  the  contact  of  Triassic 

rocks  and  quartz  porphyry. 
Russia. 

Cinnabar  is  found  in  the  gold-mining  regions  of  the  Urals,  and  at  other 

places. 
China. 

Cinnabar  has  been  produced  in  great  quantities  from  Kai-Chau. 
Peru. 
Huancavelica  district.     The  ore  is  cinnabar  in  almost  vertical  Jurassic 

rocks,   and   is   thought   to    be    sublimed. 
Asia  Minor. 

Ancient  mines  at  Koniah.2 

Quicksilver  is  known  to  occur  in  many  other  foreign  countries,  but  they 
are  not  producers. 

Quicksilver  in  the  United   States.3 

Nearly  all  the  quicksilver  produced  in  the  United  States  comes  from  Texas 
and  California. 

'Don  Fernando  Bernaldez  y  Don  Ramon  Figueroa. — Memoria  sobre  las  minas  de 
Almaden  y  Almadenejos  extractada  de  la  escrita  por  orden  de  S.M.  Madrid, 
1861. 

2F.   S.   Sharpless. — Mercury  mines  at  Koniah,   Asia  Minor.      Eng.   and   Mining   Tour 
LXXXVI,    601-603.      Sept.    26,    1908. 

*H.  D.  McCaskey. — Quicksilver.  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States  for  1907 
pt.  I,  683-692.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1908.  (Bibliography.) 


227 


228 


MERCURY. 


Oregon,  Utah,  Nevada,  and  Arizona  produce  small  amounts. 

California.4     All  of  the  quicksilver  deposits  of  California  are  found  in 

the  Coast  Ranges. 

New  Almaden,  in  Santa  Clara  county,  after  the  Almaden  region  of 
Spain,  has  been  the  most  important  quicksilver  region  of  the 
world. 

The  ore  is  cinnabar,  with  some  native  metal,  in  chambered  veins, 
reticulated  masses  and  impregnations  in  the  country  rock.  The 
gangue  is  quartz,  calcite,  and  dolomite. 

Two  principal  fissures  unite  at  a  depth  enclosing  a  wedge  shaped 
mass  of  country  rock,  which  has  ore-bearing  channels  through  it. 
New  Idria,  in  San  Benito  county. 

The  ore  is  cinnabar,  in  reticulated  masses,  impregnations  and  fissure 
•     veins.      The    country    rock   is    mostly   fissured    metamorphosed 

sandstones  and  shales  capped  with  augite-andesite. 
The  veins  are  apparently  still  filling. 

Near  Clear  Lake  and  south  of  it  in  Lake  county  there  are  numerous 
quicksilver  deposits. 


Fig.   94. — Vertical  section  through  shaft  no.   3,   Great  Western  quicksilver  mine,   Lake 
county,  California.      (Becker.)      Scale,  200  feet  to  1  inch. 

4Geo.  F.   Becker. — Geology  of  the  quicksilver  deposits  of  the  Pacific  slope.     Monograph 

XIII,    U.    S.    Geological   Survey.      Washington,    1888.      (Bibliography.) 
W.    Forstner. — The   quicksilver    resources    of    California.      Bui.    27,    California    State 
Mining    Bureau.      Sacramento,    1903. 


229 


230  MERCURY. 

At  Sulphur  Bank  the  ore  is  cinnabar  associated  with  sulphur  below  the 

zone  of  oxidation  in  shattered  rock  masses  and  as  impregnations. 
At  the  Great  Western  mine  the  ore  occurs  in  "tabulated  masses"  at  the 

contact  between  altered  sandstone  and  serpentine. 
At  the  Great  Eastern  mine  in  Sonoma  county  the  ore  occurs  in  irregular 

pipes  or  chimney  deposits  in  opalized  rock. 
Texas.5 

At  Terlingua,  Brewster  county,  cinnabar  occurs  in  veins  and  pockets 
in  Cretaceous  limestone  and  in  volcanic  rocks.     It  also  impregnates 
the  whole   mass   to    some   extent.      Calcite   is   the  only   associated 
mineral. 
Oregon.8 

Quicksilver  occurs  in  the  Cascade  Mountains. 

At   Steamboat   Springs   cinnabar  occurs   as  impregnations   through  de- 
composed granite  in  connection  with  hot  springs. 
Statistics  are  usually  given  in  flasks  of  76l/2  pounds. 

°Benj.    F.    Hill. — The    Terlingua    quicksilver    deposits.      Bui.    4,    University    of    Texas 

Min.   Survey.     Austin,    1902. 

H.  W.  Turner. — The  Terlingua  quicksilver  deposits.     Economic  Geology,   I,  265-281. 
190S-6.      (Bibliography.) 

«W.    B.    Dennis. — The    quicksilver    deposits    of    Oregon.      Engineering    and    Mining 
Journal,  LXXVI,  539-541.     New  York,   1903. 


231 


232 


MERCURY. 


233 


234  TUNGSTEN. 


TUNGSTEN. 

Tungsten  is  never  found  in  the  native  state,  and  the  pure  metal  is 
seldom  produced  artificially.  It  is  a  tin  white  metal  having  a 
specific  gravity  of  19.1  and  is  harder  than  quartz. 

Uses. 
Tungsten  added  to  steel  in  small  proportion  (2  to  12  per  cent)  gives 

greatly  increased   hardness  and  brittleness.1      This  steel  is   used 

in  making  tools. 

Filaments  of  electric  incandescent  lamps. 
In  alloys,  "magenta  bronze,"  "saffron  bronze." 
As  a  pigment  in  certain  yellow  and  blue  paints. 
As  a  mordant  for  printing  cotton  cloth  and  staining  paper. 

Ores. 

Wolframite    (Fe,    MnWO*)  :    iron   protoxide    19.16,   manganese   protoxide 

4.96,  tungsten  trioxide  75.88,  individual  analysis. 
Scheelite,   calcium   tungstate    (Ca  WO4) :    lime    19.4,   tungsten   trioxide 

80.6. 
Huebnerite,  tungstate  of  magnesium   (MnWO4),  containing  from   18 

to  25  per  cent  manganese  protoxide,  and  from  73  to  76  per  cent 

tungsten  trioxide. 
Ferberite,  black  tungstate  of  iron,  contains  about  70  per  cent  tungsten 

trioxide. 

Occurrence. 

Tungsten  usually  occurs  in  quartz  veins  in  granite. 
Tungsten  is  found  associated  with  deposits  of  tin;  it  occurs  at  many 

places,  but  is  produced  at  few. 

Distribution. 

Tungsten  in  Europe:  Cornwall,  Saxony,  Bohemia. 
Australasia. 

New  South  Wales.2 

Queensland.' 

New  Zealand. 

1F.  L.  Garrison. — Alloys  of  iron  and  tungsten.     Sixteenth  ann.  rep.  U.   S.  Geological 

Survey,  pt.  Ill,  615-623.     Washington,    1895. 

R.   Helmhacker. — Relative   resistance   of  tungsten  and   molybdenum   steel.      Engineer- 
ing and   Mining  Journal,   LXVI,  430.     New   York,    1898. 

*J-   E.   Carne. — Tungsten   ores   in    New   South   Wales.       Mineral    Resources    (of   N.    S. 
Wales),   no.   2.      Sydney,    1898. 

*W.   E.    Cameron. — Wolframite mining   in    Queensland.      Report   Geological    Sur- 
vey,  no.    188.      Brisbane,    1904. 
United  States.' 


235 


236  TUNGSTEN. 

Colorado.5 

Boulder  county  produces  nearly  all  the  tungsten  of  the  state  of 

Colorado. 

It  occurs  as   ferberite   in   sheeted  veins  in  granite   intruded  into 
Paleozoic  schists  and  gneisses.      Brecciated  zones  and  cavities 
are  lined  with  crystals  of  ferberite  which  have  been  deposited 
from  solutions. 
South  Dakota.6 
Wolframite  impregnates  sandy  Cambrian  dolomites  and  is  associated 

with  cassiterite  and  scheelite  in  quartz  veins. 
Montana.1 

Huebnerite  occurs  in  shoots  and  veins  formerly  worked  for  silver. 

It  is  associated  with  quartz,  copper  sulphides,  and  silver. 
California.8 
At  Randsburg9  in  San  Bernardino  county  scheelite  occurs  in  quartz 

veins  in  old  granites. 
It  is  found  at  many  other  places  in  the  desert  region  of  southern 

California. 
Arizona.10 

Near   Dragoon,    quartz  veins   carrying   scheelite,   wolframite,   and 
huebnerite  cut  granite.      The  minerals  are  probably  magmatic 
segregations. 
Nevada.11  * 

Scheelite  and  huebnerite  occur  at  several  places  in  quartz  veins 
cutting  granites  and  schists  of  Palaeozoic  age. 

'Tungsten.— Mineral    Industry,     VII,    719-722.       Washington,     1899,     XVII,    826-835. 

Washington,    1909. 
F.   L.   Hess. — Tungsten.      Mineral   Resources   of  the  U.    S.    for    1908,   pt.    I,   721-736. 

U.    S.    Geological    Survey.      Washington,    1909.      (Bibliography.) 

•W.  E.  Greenawalt. — The  tungsten  deposits  of  Boulder  county,  Colorado.  Engineer- 
ing and  Mining  Journal,  LXXXIII,  951-952.  New  York,  1907. 

W.  Lindgren. — Some  gold  and  tungsten  deposits  of  Boulder  county,  Colorado. 
Economic  Geology,  II,  453-463.  1907. 

•F.    L.    Hess. — Tin    tungsten    and    tantalum    deposits    of    South    Dakota.      Bui.    380, 

131-163.      U.    S.    Geological    Survey.      Washington,    1909. 
J.    D.    Irving Wolframite    in    the    Black   Hills    of    South    Dakota.      Trans.    Am. 

Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XXXI,   683-695.      New    York,    1902. 

7F.  Tomek. — Tungsten  in  Montana.      Mining  World,   XXVIII,  63.      Chicago,    1908. 
A.    N.    Winchell. — Notes   on   tungsten   minerals   from   Montana.      Economic    Geology, 
V,   158-165.     March,   1910. 

'Gordon  Surr.— Tungsten  in  California.  Los  Angeles  Mining  Review,  XXVI,  12-14. 
April,  1909. 

*S.  H.  Dolbear. — Occurrence  of  tungsten  in  Rand  district,  California.  Engineering 
and  Mining  Journal,  XC,  904-905.  New  York,  1910. 

"W.  P.  Blake.— Huebnerite  in  Arizona.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXVIII, 
543-546.  New  York,  1899. 

"F.  B.  Weeks.— Engineering  and  Mining  Jour.,  July  6,  1901,  p.  8;  Bui.  340D,  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey,  35-42.  Washington,  1908. 


237 


238  TUNGSTEN. 

Connecticut,   Idaho,  Alaska,  Washington,  and  New  Mexico  all  have 
deposits  of  tungsten  minerals.      The  occurrences  are  similar  to 
those    already   described. 
Statistics. 

From  1899  to  1908  the  tungsten  output  in  the  United  States  varied 

from  46  to  1,640  tons. 

The  United  States  is  now  the  largest  producer;  South  America, 
Queensland,  and  New  South  Wales  are  the  only  other  important 
producing  countries. 

THE  WORLD'S  TUNGSTEN  OUTPUT. 

1905 3,979  tons. 

1906 4,320  tons. 

1907...  ...6,062  tons. 


239 


240  MOLYBDEXr.M. 


MOLYBDENUM.1 

Molybdenum  is  a  white  metal  with  a  silvery  lustre;  it  is  as  malleable  as 
iron;  its  specific  gravity  is  9.01. 

Uses. 
The  principal  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  molybdenum  steel  which  is 

extremely  tough. 

Tool  steel  contains  from  2  to  4  per  cent  of  molybdenum. 
Armor  steel  contains  from  1  to  2  per  cent  of  molybdenum. 
It  is  also  used  in  making  disinfectants,  pigments,  and  fire-proof  cloth. 

Ores. 

Molybdenite,  the  sulphide  (MoS2)  :  molybdenum  60.0,  sulphur  40.0,  is  the 
principal  source  of  supply;  it  is  lead  gray  in  color,  very  soft,  and  re- 
sembles graphite. 

Wulfenite  (Pb  MoO*)  :  molybdenum  trioxide  39.3,  lead  oxide  60.7. 

Modes  of  Occurrence. 

Molybdenum  does  not  occur  in  the  native  state.  It  usually  occurs  as 
disseminations  or  quartz  veins  in  granite  or  gneiss,  and  is  associated 
with  pegmatite  veins  from  which  it  is  supposed  to  have  originated. 

Distribution. 

The  metal  is  produced  in  commercial  quantities  in  but  few  places.  For- 
merly the  chief  supply  of  the  world  came  from  Sweden. 

Molybdenum  in  the   United  States. 
Washington2  in  1902  produced  12  tons  of  ore.      The  ore  is  molybdenite 

and  occurs  in  a  quartz  vein  in  granite.       On   Railroad   Creek,  four 

miles  from  Lake  Chelan,  it  occurs  in  a  quartz  vein  four  feet  thick. 
In    Maine13  molybdenite   occurs   disseminated   in  granite   near   pegmatite 

dikes  from  which  the  mineral  has  been  derived. 
In  California1  molybdenite  is  desseminated  through  granite  near  pegmatite 

veins  at  Corona,  Riverside  county.     The  mineral  is  in  very  fine  flakes. 
Montana,  Utah,1  Colorado,  and  Oregon  also  produce  small  quantities  of 

ore. 

*F.    L.    Hess. — Molybdenum    deposits    of    Maine,    Utah,    and    California.       Bui     340D 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  3-12.     Washington,   1908. 
*A.    R.    Crook. — Molybdenite   at    Crown    Point,     Washington.      Bui.   Geological   Society 

America,  XV,  283-288.     Rochester,   1904. 
*G.  O.   Smith. — A  molybdenite  deposit  in  eastern  Maine.     Bui.   260,   U.   S    Geological 

Survey,    197-199.      Washington,    1905. 


242  MOLYBDENUM. 

Arizona  and  New  Mexico  are  the  chief  sources  of  supply  in  the  United 
States. 

In  the  United  States  9,550  pounds  ot  the  metal,  valued  at  about  $1.25  per 
pound,  were  produced  in  1898;  2,000  pounds  of  ferro-molybdenum 
(50%  molybdenum)  were  produced  the  same  year.  In  1908  the 
price  of  99%  metal  was  $1.50  per  pound,  and  ore  containing  95% 
molybdenum  sulphide  sold  for  $450  per  ton. 

Foreign  Countries. 
Australia. 

Queensland4  produces  the  most  of  the  world's  supply.     In  1906  145  tons, 

valued  at  $82,956,  were  produced. 
The    molybdenite    occurs    in    granite    in    irregular    quartz    veins    and 

masses  associated  with  wolframite  and  bismuth. 

New  South  Wales5  in  1906  produced  37  tons  of  ore  valued  at  $23,366. 
The  molybdenite  occurs   in  quartz  veins   associated  with   wolframite 
and  bismuth. 

4W.    E.    Cameron. — Wolfram    and    molybdenite    mining    in    Queensland.      Geological 
Survey    Queensland,    Kept.    No.    188.      Brisbane,    1904. 

6E.    F.    Pittmann. — The   mineral    resources   of    New    South    Wales,    304-306.      Sydney, 

1901. 
E.  C.   Andrews. — Molybdenum  resources  of   New  South   Wales.       Bulletin    11    of   the 

Geological   Survey  of  New   South  Wales.      Sydney,    1906. 


243 


244  ANTIMONY. 


ANTIMONY.1 

Metallic  antimony  has  a  tin-white  color,  crystalline  structure,  and  is  very 
brittle;  it  fuses  at  a  low  temperature  (430°  C). 

Uses. 

Medicine. 

Pigments:  the  trioxide  makes  a  white  paint,  and  the  sulphide  is  used 

to  make  a  red  paint. 
Alloys. 

Alloyed  with  other  metals,  antimony  gives  a  hard  and  brittle  product. 
Type-metal  is  an  alloy  of  antimony  with  lead  and  bismuth;  when  less 
than  15  per  cent  antimony  is  used  the  product  expands  on  cooling. 
Babbitt  metal  is  an  alloy  of  tin  with  antimony  and  copper   (tin  83  per 
cent,  copper  and  antimony  17  per  cent),  and  is  used  in  lining  bear- 
ings, bushings,  and  pillow  blocks  for  shafts  of  machinery. 
Pewter  is  an  alloy  of  lead  and  tin  with  antimony,  bismuth  or  copper. 
Britannia   metal   is   an  alloy  of  tin   with   antimony   and   other  metals, 
and  is  used  in  making  tableware  which  is  afterwards  plated  with 
silver. 

Solder  for  jewelry  is  made  of  antimony  and  gold. 
Antimony  and  lead  are  alloyed  in  varying  proportions  and  used  in 
making  storage  batteries,  linings  for  coffins,  and  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  toys. 

Ores. 

Stibnite  (Sb2S3):  antimony  71.4,  sulphur  28.6. 
Senarmontite   (Sb2O3)  :  antimony  83.3,  oxygen  16.7. 
Kermesite   (Sb2S2O)  :  antimony  75.0,  sulphur  20,  oxygen  5. 
Stibnite  is  the  most  important.    It  is  soft,  has  a  metallic  steel-gray  color, 
and  melts  in  a  candle  flame. 

Occurrence. 

Antimony  usually  occurs  in  veins  with  a  quartz  gangue. 

Distribution. 

The  principal  antimony-producing  countries  of  Europe  are  those  adjacent 

to  the   Mediterranean   Sea. 

France2  is  the  most  important  antimony  producer  in  the  world,  the 
annual  output  of  that  country  being  about  5,000  tons.  The  ore 
occurs  in  quartz  veins  which  follow  bedding  planes  in  mica-schist. 

1C.  Y.  Wang. — Antimony:  its  history,  chemistry,   mineralogy,  ores,  etc.     London  and 
Philadelphia,    1909.      (Bibliography.) 

*P.  L.   Burthe. — Notice  sur  la  mine  d'antimoine  de  Freycenet.     Ann.  de   Mines,  9me 
ser.   IV,    15-33.     Paris,    1893. 


245 


246  ANTIMONY. 

Portugal,    Spain,    Austria-Hungary,    Italy,    Asia    Minor,    Servia,    and 

Macedonia  all  produce  some. 
Borneo  and  Japan  are  large  producers,  annual  output  being  from  3,000 

to  4,000  tons. 

Other  regions  are  Australia,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick. 
In  New  South  Wales3  stibnite  occurs  with  quartz  in  lodes  and  veins 
cutting  Paleozoic  sedimentary  and  metamorphic  rocks. 

Antimony  in  the  United  States.4 

Antimony  is  found  in  many  localities  in  the  United  States,  but  little  is 

mined  in  this  country. 
Arkansas,  Antimony  City.5 

Stibnite  is  found  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  state  in  bedded  quartz 

veins  in  Carboniferous  sandstones  and  shales. 
California,  in  Inyo,  San  Benito,  and  Kern  counties. 

The  ore  is  stibnite  in  veins'  with  quartz  gangue. 
Nevada,  near  Austin,  Lander  county. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  important  American  localities ;  the  ore  occurs 

as  a  small  vein  of  almost  pure  stibnite. 
In  Humboldt  county  stibnite  occurs  in  quartz  veins. 
Utah,  Iron  county.' 

Stibnite  is  desseminated  through  sandstone  and  conglomerate  follow- 
ing the  stratification. 
Montana,  near  Thompson's  Falls. 

*E.  F.  Pittmann. — The  mineral  resources  of  New  South  Wales.  246-255.  Sydney, 
1901. 

«W.  P.  Blake.— Antimony.  Mineral  Resources  of  the  U.  S.  for  1883-84,  641-653. 
Washington,  1885.  The  Mineral  Industry,  II,  13-24.  New  York,  1894. 

•T.  B.  Comstock. — Geology  of  western  central  Arkansas.  Ann.  rep.  Geological  Sur- 
vey of  Arkansas,  I,  136-144.  Little  Rock,  1888. 

F.  L.  Hess. — The  Arkansas  antimony  deposits.  Bui.  340D,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 
13-24.  Bui.  340,  241-252.  Washington,  1908. 

«G.  B.  Richardson. — Antimony  in  southern  Utah.  Bui.  340D,  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey,  25-28.  Washington,  1908.  Bui.  340,  U.  S.  C-eological  Survey,  253-256. 
Washington,  1908. 


247 


248 


ANTIMONY. 


ANTIMONY. 

THE.  PRODUCTION  OF  ANT\MONY 
ORES  BY  THE  CHIEF  PRODUCING 
COUNTRIES  SINCE  I860. 


fRANCE  

ITALY 

MEXICO 

JAPAN 


UNITED  3TATLS 


Fig.   96. 


249 


250  BISMUTH. 

BISMUTH. 

Bismuth  is  white  with  a  red  tinge,  very  brittle,  and  melts  at  264°  C. 

Uses. 

In  medicine  and  cosmetics. 

Its  principal  use  is  as  an  alloy ;  its  alloys  melt  at  low  temperatures  and 

expand  upon  cooling. 
Alloys  of  bismuth,  lead,  and  tin  fuse  at  very  low  temperatures. 

Newton's  fusible  metal  melts  at  94.5°  C. 

Darcet's  metal  melts  at  93°  C. 

Rose's  metal  melts  below  100°  C. 

Lipowitz's  metal  contains  cadmium  and  melts  at  a  little  over  60°  C. 
The  alloys  are  used  for  making  safety  plugs  in  boilers,  for  which  they 
are  untrustworthy,  and  for  automatic  fire  plugs  in  buildings. 

Ores. 

Native  bismuth  is  a  heavy,  very  soft,  white  metal,  and  this  is  the  source 

of  most  of  it. 
Bismuthinite,  bismuth  tri-sulphide  (Bi2  Sa),  bismuth  81.2,  sulphur,  18.8; 

bismutite,  a  basic  bismuth  carbonate,  and  tetradymite,  a  telluride  of 

bismuth,  are  other  forms  of  bismuth  minerals. 

Occurrence. 

Bismuth  usually  occurs  in  quartz  veins  in  granite  and  metamorphic  rocks. 
It  is  usually  associated  with  molybdenite,  silver,  cobalt,  nickel,  and 
the  members  of  its  chemical  group. 

Distribution. 

Most  of  the  bismuth  of  commerce  comes  from  Saxony,  Australia,1  Peru, 

and  Bolivia. 

Bolivia  exports  from  200  to  600  tons  per  annum. 
United  States. 

Bismuth  occurs  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  with  silver  ores,  but  the  de- 
posits have  so  far  proved  of  no  commercial  importance. 
The  best  known   localities   are :    Colorado,   the   Bismuth   Queen   lode 
near  Golden;  Utah,  west  of  Beaver  City;  Arizona,  near  Tucson. 
In  1885  the  United  States  produced  only  about  one  ton  of  bismuth ; 
in  1907  it  produced  four  tons;  in  1908  it  produced  two  tons. 

JE.   F.   Pittmann. — The   mineral   resources   of   New    South   Wales.      256-272.      Sydney, 
1901. 

J.    A.    Watt. — Notes    on    the    occurrence    of    bismuth    ores    in    New    South    Wales. 
Mineral    Resources    (of   N.    S.    Wales),    no.    4.      Sydney,    1898. 


251 


252 


CADMIUM.1 

Cadmium  is  a  ductile,  malleable  metal,  somewhat  harder  than  tin,  with 
a  tin-white  color.  When  fresh  it  has  a  brilliant  lustre,  but  dulls  from 
oxidization  upon  exposure  to  the  air.  It  melts  at  about  320°  C. 

Uses. 

It  is  used  as  a  metal  only  in  alloys  which  fuse  at  very  low  temperatures. 

Lipowitz's  metal  fuses  at  60°   C. 

Wood's  metal  melts  at  about  66°  C. 

As  a  pigment,  cadmium  sulphide  gives  various  shades  of  yellow. 
It  is  also  used  in  dentistry,  glass  making,  photography,  and  pyrotechnics. 

Occurrence. 

Cadmium  occurs  as  the  sulphide,  greenockite  (CdS)  :  cadmium  77.7, 
sulphur  22.3,  and  is  found  with  sulphides  and  carbonates  of  zinc. 
It  is  produced  with  difficulty  as  a  by-product  of  zinc  smelting. 

Distribution. 

The  cadmium  of  commerce  is  mostly  produced  in  Silesia. 
In  1892  the  output  of  Silesia  was  7.2  tons;  in  1907  it  was  35  tons; 

and  in  1908  it  was  34  tons. 

In  the  United  States  cadmium  is  sometimes  found  with  the  zinc  ores 
of  Missouri,  Kansas,  Arkansas,  and  Pennsylvania  as  yellow  zinc  car- 
bonate, popularly  known  as  "turkey-fat." 
The  production  of  the  United  States  in  1907  was  15,000  pounds;  in 

1908  it  was   10,000  pounds. 
The  price  of  cadmium  in  New  York  was  $1.25  per  pound  in  July,  1908. 

JW.   R.   Ingalls. — ^i'mc  and  cadmium.       Mineral   Industry,  VII,   723-750.      New  York, 

1898. 
C.    E.    Siebenthal. — Cadmium.      Mineral    Resources    of    the   United    States    for    1908, 

pt.  I,   793-803.     Washington,    1909. 

P    Soeier  — Cadmium  as  a  by-product.      Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,   LXXXVI, 
538.'    New   York,   1908. 


25.3 


254  ARSENIC. 

ARSENIC.1 

Arsenic  is  a  brittle,  grayish-white  metal,  that  tarnishes  easily ;  it  is  seldom 
found  native. 

Uses. 

In  medicine  as  tonics. 

Arsenic  compounds  are  poisonous. 
Insecticides. 

In  preservatives  of  wood  and  biological  specimens. 
Alloyed  with  lead  for  shot. 

As  a  pigment;  many  of  the  green  colors  contain  arsenic. 
Embalming  fluids. 

Ores. 

The  principal  ores  of  arsenic  are  realgar  (AsS)  :  arsenic  70.1,  sulphur 
29.9;  orpiment  (As2S3)  :  arsenic  61.0,  sulphur  39.0;  mispickel 
(Fe  AsS)  :  arsenic  46.0,  iron  34.3,  sulphur  19.7. 

There  are  also  arsenides  of  iron,  nickel,  and  cobalt. 

Mode  of  treatment.2 

Distribution. 

Arsenic  is  found  at  many  places,  but  seldom  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
be  mined  with  profit.  Cornwall  and  Devonshire  are  the  principal 
producers  at  present.  It  is  also  produced  in  Saxony  and  Bohemia 
and  has  been  produced  at  Deloro,  Ontario,  where  it  occurs  in  gold- 
bearing  mispickel. 

iThe    Mineral    Industry,    II,    25-26.       New    York,    1894. 
R.   P.    Rothwell. — The   treatment   of   gold-bearing   arsenical    ores   at   Deloro,    Ontario, 

Canada.     Trans.   Amer.   Inst.   Min.    Eng.,   XI,    191-196.     New   York,    1883. 
Joseph  James. — Arsenic  and  its  uses.     Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,   LXXII,  4. 

New  York,   1901. 

Possibilities   of   producing    arsenic   in    the    United    States.      Engineering    and    Mining 
Journal,    LXXI,    656-657.      New   York,    1901. 


255 


Part  III 

The  Non- Metallic  Minerals 
Fuels 

COAL,  LIGNITE,  AND  PEAT.1 

National   importance  of  coal. 

The  coal  product  of  the  United  States  in  1908  was  capable  of  doing 
the  work  of  687,586,062  men  working  ten  hours  a  day  for  365  days 
in  the  year. 

Uses.2 

Domestic  purposes :   fuel   and  illuminating  gas. 

Steam  producing :   locomotives ;   navigation ;   driving  machinery. 

Production  of  electricity. 

Metallurgical  purposes,  including  the  manufacture  of  coke. 

Reduction  of  ores. 

Iron  smelting:   inferior  qualities  of  coal  can  not  be  used. 

Blacksmithing. 

The  proportions  of  coal  used  for  various  purposes  shown  approximately 
by  the  consumption  of  Great  Britain  in  1876: 

Domestic  purposes,  including  gas,   10-40ths. 

Manufacturing  and  locomotion,  ll-40ths. 

Metallurgical  purposes,    15-40ths. 

Exportation,  4-40ths. 

The  Origin  of  Coal.3 

The  vegetable  origin  of  coal  shown  by : 

Fragments  of  plants  in  the  shales  above  and  below  coal  beds.  In 
some  cases  the  impressions  contain  the  coal  made  by  individual 
plants. 

*M.    R.    Campbell. — Contributions   to    economic    geology,    pt.    II,    Mineral    fuels.       Bui. 

381,   U.    S.   Geological   Survey.      Washington,    1910. 
Contributions    to    economic    geology,    pt.    II.      Bui.    316,    U.    S.    Geological    Survey. 

Washington,    1907. 
Coal  and   lignite.      Bui.    341.     U.    S.   Geological   Survey.      Washington,    1909. 

ZW.   B.   Clark. — Origin,   distribution,  and  uses  of  coal.     Maryland  Geological   Survey, 
V,   221-240.      Baltimore,    190S. 

JLeo   Lesquereux. — On  the   vegetable   origin   of  coal.       Ann.   rep.       Geological    Survey 

of    Pennsylvania    for    1885,    95-124.     Harrisburg,    1886. 
J.    E.     Bowman. — On    the    origin    of    coal.       Trans.     Manchester    Geological    Society, 

I,    90-111.     Manchester,     1840. 
G    H.  Ashley. — The  maximum  rate  of  the  deposition  of  coal.       Economic  Geology,  II, 

34-47,    1907. 
David    White.- — Some   problems    of   the    formation    of    coal.       Economic    Geology,    III, 

292-318.      1908. 


257 


258  COAL. 

Microscopic  plant  fragments  and  spores  through  the  coal. 
Chemical   composition. 
Intergradation  of  peat  and  coal. 

The  physical  conditions  under  which  coal  was  deposited.* 
Evidence  of  the  nature  of  accompanying  rocks. 
Evidence  of  the  accompanying  fossils. 
Importance  of  time,  heat,  and  pressure. 
The  origin  of  anthracite  coal.8 


Quality. 
Lignite8  ..............  12.45 

Lignite   v 
Bituminous 
Semi-bituminous 
Anthracite 

Classification  by  fuel  ratio.' 

fixed  carbon 


COMPOSITION  OF  COALS. 

(Individual  cases.) 

Volatile 

Fixed 

Hydro- 

Water. 

Sulphur. 

Ash. 

Carbon. 

carbon. 

12.45 

0.56 

12.45 

35.53 

39.00 

30.58 

0.65 

9.10 

28.56 

31.01 

0.70 

0.86 

3.56 

78.99 

15.87 

0.74 

4.06 

9.96 

72.60 

12.61 

2.49 

0.65 

8.54 

83.96 

4.34 

Formula:  Fuel  ratio  =• 


volatile  hydrocarbon. 

Bituminous    1  to  5 

Semi-bituminous     5  to  8 

Semi-anthracite 8  to  12 

Anthracite 12  to  99 

This  classification  may  or  may  not  hold  in  trade. 

Effect  of  water  in  coal:  objection  to  lignite. 

Sulphur  aids  combustion  but  attacks  grates  and  boilers,  and  injures  pig 

iron. 
Fixed  carbon  determines  steaming  value  of  bituminous  coals.8 

Influence  of  fixed  carbon  in  manufacturing  coke. 

Volatile  hydrocarbon  in  gas  manufacture. 

4T.  S.  Newberry. — On  the  physical  conditions  under  which  coal  was  formed.  School 
of  Mines  Quarterly,  IV,  169-173.  New  York,  1883. 

BW.  S.  Gresley. — Observations  regarding  the  occurrence  of  anthracite,  with  a  new 
theory  of  its  origin.  American  Geologist,  XVIII,  1-21.  Minneapolis,  1896. 

'These  two  analyses  of  lignite  are  of  the  same  specimen,  one  having  been  made 
shortly  after  the  lignite  was  taken  froom  the  Van  Sickle  mine,  Washita  Co., 
Arkansas,  the  other  after  it  had  air  dried  one  month. 

7M.  R.  Campbell. — The  classification  of  coals.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng. 
XXXVI,  324-340.  New  York,  1906. 

8D.  T.  Randall. — The  purchase  of  coal.  Bull.  339,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Wash- 
ington, 1908. 


259 


260  COAL. 

Influence  of  the  physical  properties  of  coal. 

Cannel  coal. 
Causes  of  the  variations  in  character  and  composition  of  coals.8 

Distribution. 

Geologic. 

The  bulk  of  the  world's  coal  comes  from  rocks  of  Carboniferous  age, 
but  it  is  also  found  in  rocks  of  all  ages  except  the  oldest  and 
the  newest. 

There  are  thin  beds  of  coal  in  the  Devonian;  the  most  important 
beds  are  in  the  Carboniferous.  Note,  however,  that  all  Carbon- 
iferous rocks  do  not  contain  coal. 

Carboniferous  in  Belgium.10 

Carboniferous   and    Permian   in   France. 

Carboniferous  and  Jurassic  over  a  large  part  of  China.11 

Permian    coal    in   Australia. 

Triassic  coal  in  Virginia"  and  North  Carolina. 

Cretaceous  and  Jurassic  anthracite  in  Peru.12 

Cretaceous  in  British  Columbia. 

Tertiary  coal  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States  and  in  Alaska. 
Geographic. 

The  largest  coal  fields  are  those  of  China;  they  are  but  little  known.11 

The  greatest  coal-producing  countries  at  present  are  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  and  Germany;  in  1908  these  countries  pro- 
duced 81  per  cent  of  the  coal  of  the  world. 

The  Coal  Deposits  of  North  America.13 

The  Carboniferous   coals  are  the   most  abundant  and  most  important. 
The  workable  beds  of  Carboniferous  coal  cover  an  area  of  193,000 

square  miles  of  the  United  States. 
The  Carboniferous  geography  of  the  United  States. 

»M.  R.  Campbell. — Varieties  of  coal.      Economic  Geology,  I,  26-33.      1906. 

10R.   Malherbe. — De  la   richesse  et   de  la   division   du   systeme   houiller   de   la  province 

de   Li^ge.     Ann.    Soc.   Geol.   de   Belgique,   VIII,   27-421.     Li&ge,    1880-1. 
G.   Simoens.— Bui.  Soc.  Beige  de  Geol.,  XVI,   182-190.      Bruxelles,  1902. 

"N.    F.    Drake. — The    coal    fields    of    northeastern    China.     Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 

Eng.,  XXXI,  492-512.     New  York,   1902. 

N.    F.    Drake. — The    coal-fields    around    Tse    Chou,    Shansi,    China.       Trans.    Amer. 
Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XXX,    261-277.     New    York,     1901. 

12Wm.  Griffith. — Anthracite  coal  in  Peru.     Journal  of.  the  Franklin  Institute,  CXLVII, 
227-244.     Philadelphia,    1899. 


261 


Fig.  97. 


263 


264  COAL. 

Relations  of  the  anthracite  to  the  bituminous  coal  fields. 
The  Triassic  coal  of  Virginia,"  North  Carolina,  and  Mexico." 
Coal  of  Cretaceous  age  in  Mexico,16  Vancouver,17  Colorado,  Wyoming, 
North  Dakota,lp  Montana,18  and  California.20 

"Arthur  Winslow. — Geology  of  the  coal  regions  of  Arkansas.  Ann.  rep.  of  State 
Geological  Survey  for  1888.  Little  Rock,  1888. 

Edward  Orton. — Report  of  the  geological  survey  of  Ohio.  Economic  Geology, 
V  and  VI.  Columbus,  1884  and  1888. 

L.  P.  Lesley. — Manual  of  coal  and  its  topography.      Philadelphia,   1856. 

James    Macfarlane. — The    coal    regions    of    America.     New    York,    1873. 

H.  M.  Chance. — Mining  methods  and  appliances  used  in  the  anthracite  coal  fields. 
Report  AC  of  the  Second  Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania.  Harrisburg, 
1883. 

C.  A.  Ashburner. — Report  of  progress  in  the  anthracite  region.  Report  AA  of  the 
Second  Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania.  Harrisburg,  1883. 

I.  The  Pittsburg  coal  region.  III.  Anthracite  coal  region.  Ann.  rep.  of  the 
Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania  for  1886.  Harrisburg,  1887. 

George  H.  Ashley. — The  coal  deposits  of  Indiana.  Twenty-third  ann.  rep.  Depart- 
ment of  Geology  and  Natural  Resources,  1898,  1-1573.  Indianapolis,  1899. 

C.  W.  Hayes.— The  coal  fields  of  the  United  States.  Twenty-second  ann.  rep.  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey,  pt.  Ill,  11-24.  Washington,  1902. 

A.  C.  Lane. — Coal  in  Michigan;  its  mode  of  occurrence  and  quality.  Geological 
Survey  of  Michigan,  VIII,  pt.  II.  Lansing,  1902. 

White,  Campbell,  and  Haseltine. — The  northern  Appalachian  coal  fields.  Twenty- 
second  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  Ill,  199-225.  Washington,  1902. 

C.  W.  Hayes. — The  southern  Appalachian  coal  field.  Twenty-second  ann.  rep. 
U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  Ill,  227-263.  Washington,  1902. 

"N.  S.  Shaler  and  J.  B.  Woodworth.— Geology  of  the  Richmond  basin,  Virginia.  Nine- 
teenth ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  II,  385-519.  Washington,  1899. 

"E.  T.  Bumble.— Triassic  coal  ....  of  Sonora,  Mexico.  Bui.  Geol.  Soc.  Amer.,  XI, 
10-14.  Rochester,  1900. 

"E.  Ludlow. — The  coal-fields  of  Las  Esperanzas,  Coahuila,  Mexico.  Trans.  Amer. 
Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXXII,  140-156.  New  York,  1902. 

17W.  M.  Brewer. — The  British  Columbia  coal  fields.  Engineering  and  Mining 
Journal,  LXXIII,  408-410;  LXXIV,  180-181.  New  York,  1902. 

18A.  G.  Leonard. — Geology  of  southwestern  North  Dakota  with  special  reference 
to  the  coal.  5th  Biennial  report  of  State  Geological  Survey  of  North  Dakota, 
27-114.  Bismarck,  1908. 

"C.   A.    Fisher.— Geology   of    the    Great    Falls   coal   field,    Montana.      Bui.    356,    U.    S. 

Geological    Survey.     Washington,     1909. 

J.  P.  Rome. — Montana  coal  and  lignite  deposits.  Bui.  37,  Geol.  Series  2,  University 
of  Montana  publications.  Missoula,  1906. 

^Peckham  and  Goodyear.- — California  and  Pacific  Coast  coals.     Geology  of  California, 

Appendix    II.      Cambridge,    1882. 
Folio     9.       Anthracite — Crested     Butte     Folio,     Colorado.       Geologic     Atlas     of     the 

United    States.      U.    S.    Geological    Survey.      Washington,    1894. 
H.    W.    Fairbanks. — Coal    beds    of    California.      Engineering    and    Mining    Journal, 

LXII,    10.      New    York,    1896. 


265 


266 


COAL. 


Tertiary   coal   about    Puget    Sound,    in   Oregon,2 
Alaska,2*  and  the   Philippine  Islands.23 


Arkansas22    Texas,23 


Structural  Features  of  Coal  Regions. 

Coal  itself  occurs  in  beds,  not  in  veins,  properly  speaking. 
Structural   features  of  coal  geology  vary   from  nearly  horizontal  beds 
to  highly  folded,  faulted,  and  eroded  ones. 


Fig.    98. — Sections   showing   the    folds   of   the   coal   and   of   the   accompanying    beds   in 

the  Mahanoy-Shamokin  basin.     Schuylkill  county,  Pennsylvania. 

(Second  Geol.   Sur.  PaO 


"W.    A.    Goodyear. — The    coal    mines    of    the    western    coast    of    the    United    States. 

New    York,     1879. 
Bailey    Willis. — Some    coal    fields    of    Puget    Sound.      Eighteenth    ann.    rep.    U.    S. 

Geological   Survey,  pt.   Ill,   393-436.      Washington,    1898. 
J.  S.   Diller. — (Coal  in  Oregon).       Geological   reconnoissance  in  northwestern  Oregon. 

Seventeenth   ann.    rep.    U.    S.    Geological    Survey,   pt.    I,    490-508.      Washington, 

1896. 
J.     S.    Diller. — The    Coos    Bay    coal    field,    Oregon.      Nineteenth    ann.    rep.    U.    S. 

Geological   Survey,   pt.   Ill,   309-376.     Washington,    1899. 
R.    Brown.— Coal    field    of    the    north    Pacific    coast.      Trans.    Edinburgh    Geol.    Soc., 

I,    pt.    Ill,    305-325.      1870. 
T.     B.     Corey.— Coal    resources    of    Washington.       Mining,     I,     231-239.       Spokane, 

1896. 
Geo.    O.    Smith. — The    coal    fields    of    the    Pacific    coast.      Twenty-second    ann.    rep. 

U.   S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.   Ill,  473-513.     Washington,   1902.      (Bibliography.) 

"Joseph    A.    Taff. — The    Camden   coal    fields   of   southwestern   Arkansas.      Twenty-first 
ann.  rep.  U.  S.   Geological  Survey,  pt.  II,  313-329.      Washington,   1900. 

^W.   B.   Phillips. — Coal,   lignite,   and  asphalt  rocks    (of   Texas).      Bui.   No.   3,   Univer- 
sity  of   Texas    Min.    Survey.      Austin,    1902. 

MW.   H.    Ball. — Coal  and  lignite  of  Alaska.      Seventeenth  ann.    rep.   U.   S.   Geological 

Survey,  pt.  I,  771-907.  Washington,  1896. 
A.  H.  Brooks. — The  outlook  for  coal  mining  in  Alaska.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min. 

Eng.,  XXXVI,  489-507.  New  York,  1906. 
G.  C.  Martin. — Geology  and  mineral  resources  of  the  Controller  Bay  region,  Alaska. 

Bui.   335,   U.    S.   Geological   Survey,   65-111.      Washington,    1908. 

"W.  D.   Smith. — The  geology  of  the  Compostella-Danas  coal  field.     Philippine  Journal 

of    Science,    II,    377-405.      Manila,    1907. 
W.   D.   Smith. — The  coal  deposits  of  the  Philippines.      Bui.   5,   Bureau   of  Mines,   P. 

I.      Manila,    1905. 
C.  H.  Burrit. — The  coal  measures  of  the  Philippines.     War  Dept.  269.     Washington, 

1901. 
J.    B.    Dilworth.— Philippine    coal-fields.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XXXIX, 

653-664.      New    York,    1909. 


267 


268 


COAL. 


In  the  bituminous  regions  of  the  United  States  the  beds  are  mostly  hori- 
zontal ;  in  the  anthracite  regions  they  are  much  folded ;  in  Scotland 
they  are  extensively  faulted.  In  Belgium  they  are  folded  and 
parted  and  are  overlapped  by  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  rocks.  The 
Belgian  coal  fields  are  the  continental  extension  of  the  English  coal 
fields. 

Origin  of  the   outliers  in  regions  of  horizontal  beds. 

Separation  of  coal  fields  in  folded  areas.26 

Relations  of  dip   and   folds   to   development. 

Splitting  of  beds ;  washouts.27 

Surface  and  underground   features  in  glaciated  areas. 


Fig.  99. — Geologic  section  in  the  glaciated  part 
how  outcrops   are  mostly   concealed 


of  Indiar 
(Ashley.) 


Danger  from  pot-holes;  the   Nanticoke  disaster.23 
Rocks   associated  with   coal. 

Conglomerates  and  their  relations  to  the  coal. 

Sandstones;  lithologic  characters  not  important. 

Shales  are  common,  but  they  are  not  confined  to  coal-bearing  horizons. 

What  is  meant  by  "coal  blossom." 

The  Coal  Supply. 
The  structural  features  of  coal  regions  make  it  possible  to  compute  the 

approximate  available  coal  supply. 
Consumption  of  coal  in  the  United  States. 

Increase  of  output,  past  and  future. 

Difficulties  of  determining  the  period  of  exhaustion  owing  to : 
Possibility  of  working  thinner  beds. 
Decreasing  loss  through  better  methods  of  mining. 
Possibility  of  utilizing  other  sources  of  energy,   such  as  petroleum, 
natural  gas,  and  waterpower  available  through  electric  transmis- 
sion over  long  distances. 

**N.    S.    Shaler. — On   the   original   connection    of   the   eastern    and    western   coal   fields 
of   the   Ohio   valley.      Mem.    Museum   Comparative    Zoology,    XVI.      Cambridge, 

G.    H.    Ashley. — Were    the    Appalachian    and    eastern    interior    coal    fields    ever    con- 
nected?    Economic   Geology,   II,   659-666.      1907. 

I7F.    E.    Middleton. — On   the   washouts   in    the    middle    coal    measures   of   south    York- 
shire.     Quar.    Jour.    Geol.    Soc.,    LXI,    339-344.      London,    1905. 

"C.     A.     Ashburner. — The     geological     relations    of     the     Nanticoke     disaster.       Trans. 
Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XV,    629-644.      New    York,    1887. 


269 


270 


COAL. 


Waste  of  Coal. 

Not  more  than  10  per  cent  of  the  energy  of  coal  is  utilized. 

The  amount  of  coal  in  the  world  is  limited,  and  all  unnecessary  waste 

should   be   avoided. 

Waste  of  using  through  loss  of  heat;  imperfect  combustion.2" 
Waste  in  getting. 
In  England  the  loss  was  formerly  two-thirds;   now  it  is  less  than 

one-fourth. 

The  coal  waste  commission  of  Pennsylvania30  estimates  the  total  loss 
in  the  anthracite  region  at  from  65  to  70  per  cent,  and  that  this 
will  be  reduced  to  60  per  cent. 
This  loss  is  constant  for  the  whole  region,  but  varies  greatly  with 

individual  mines  and  depth  to  which  the  mines  are  worked. 
Waste  in  pillars.  30-45  per  cent  of  the  whole  bed. 

They  may  be  saved  by  longwall  mining.31 
Waste  in  blasting. 

Wedging,  mining  machinery.32 
Effect  of  strikes  on  the  use  of  machinery.88 
Waste  in  sorting  in  the  mines,  7  per  cent  of  what  is  mined. 

Influence  of  thin  beds  of  shale  in  coal  bed. 
Waste  in  handling. 
Breaker   waste  of  anthracite   coal,  24-32  per   cent  of  what  goes  to 

the  breaker. 

The  culm  heaps  of  the  anthracite  regions. 
Results  of  different  methods  of  breaking  and  screening. 

Gyrating  screens.84 
Waste  in  shipping. 
Washing.85 


MM.     R.     Campbell. — Recent    improvements    in    the     utilization    of    coal.       Economic 
Geology,    II,    285-289.      1907. 

*°E.    B.    Coxe. — Report    of   commission    on   waste    of   coal    mining    (in    Pennsylvania). 
Philadelphia,    1893. 

"Long    wall    coal    mining.       Engineering    and    Mining    Journal,    LXII,    487,     1896; 

LXIII,    350.    1897. 

H.    V.    Hesse. — Mining   methods    for   the    maximum   recovery   of   coal.      Engineering 
and    Mining   Journal,    LXXXVII,    303-309.      New    York,    1909. 

«E.    W.    Parker.— Coal  cutting    machinery.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XXIX, 

405-459.      New    York,    1900 

Robert    Peele. — Coal   cutting   machinery.      School   of   Mines   Quarterly,    XXXI,    1-25. 
New   York,    1909. 

**E.    W.    Parker. — Recent    development    in    the    undercutting    of    coal    by    machinery. 
Bui.    45,    Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    717-748.      New   York,    1910. 

"A.    Winslow    in    ann.    rep.    Geological    Survey    of    Arkansas,    III,    105-109.      Little 
Rock,   1888. 


*£.    G.    Tuttle. — Arrangement    of   coal    washing 
School   of   Mines    Quarterly,    XVII,    378-4C 


it    for    treating    bituminous    coals. 
New    York,    1896. 


271 


272  COAL. 

The  amount  of  loss  affected  by  the  friability  of  the  coal. 

Waste   caused   by   leaving  behind  beds   that   may   become   available   in 

the   future.36 

Beds  of  anthracite  under  three  feet  in  thickness  are  not  worked  in 
the  United  States.     Beds  of  only  twenty  inches  in  thickness  are 
worked  in  England. 
Utilization  of  coal  waste. 
Burning    culm    on    special    grates.37 
Made  into  briquettes  and  eggettes.38 

Extensively  used  in  Europe. 
Filling  mines  with  waste.39 

Importance   of  stacking  coal  waste  and   other   waste   separately. 
Lignite    is   made    into   briquettes.40 
Utilization  of  peat." 
Synthetical  coal.42 

»W.    L.    Hamilton.  —  Recovering    abandoned    coal    pillars.      Engineering    and    Mining 
Journal,    LXXXVIII,    22-24.      New    York,     1909. 

*7John  R.  Wagner.  —  Burning  anthracite  culm.      Cassier's  Magazine,  IX,  1-26.      Novem- 

ber,  1895. 

A.    D.    Smith.  —  The   yield  of   the   Reynolds   anthracite   culm  bank.      Engineering  and 
Mining    Journal,    LXVII,    440-441.      New    York,    1898. 

MC.    Archibald.  —  Patent    fuel    and    its    manufacture.       Jour.    Fed.    Can.    Min.    Inst., 

II,   288-292.       Ottawa,    1897. 

R.    Schorr.—  Briquetting  and  peat  fuel.      Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,    LXXIV, 
714.      New    York,    1902. 

E.  W.    Parker.  —  Coal   briquetting   in   the    United    States.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 

Eng.,    XXXVIII,    581-620.       New    York,     1908. 

"Wm.     G.     Griffith.  —  Flushing    of    culm     in     anthracite     coal    mines.       Jour.     Franklin 
Inst,    CXLIX,    271-282.      Philadelphia,    1900. 

*°E.     Waller    and    H.     S.     Renaud.  —  Lignite    briquettes.        Engineering    and     Mining 

Journal,    LXXXII,    637-640.      New    York,    1906. 

Paul   Krusch.  —  The   utilization   of   lignite    in   Germany.      Mineral   Industry    for    1900, 
IX,    170-185.       New   York,    1901. 

F.  A.    Wilder.  —  The    lignite    deposits    of    North    Dakota.      Engineering    and    Mining 

Journal,  LXXIV,   674-675.     New  York,   1902. 

"T.    S.    Hunt.  —  On    peat    and    its    uses.      Canadian    Naturalist,    2d    Series    I,    426-411. 

Montreal,    1864. 

John  E.  Kehl.  —  Turf   (peat)  briquettes  in  Germany.      U.   S.   Consular  reps.   LIX,  98. 
C.  •  E.     Moss.-^-Peat    moors    of    the    Pennines:    their    age,    origin,     and    utilization. 

Geog.    Jour.,    XXIII,    600-671.      London,    1904. 
C.     A.     Davis.  —  Peat     in     Michigan.       Geological     Survey    of     Michigan     for     1906, 

93-395    and    bibliography.       Lansing,     1907. 
Bibliography    of    peat.      Bui.    290,    U.    S.    Geological    Survey,    11-15.      Washington, 


iograph 
1906. 


C.  A.   Davis  and  E.  S.   Bastin.—  Peat  deposits  of  Maine.     Bui.  376,  U.   S.  Geological 

Survey.      Washington,    1909. 
A.   L.    Parsons.  —  Peat:    its   formation,    uses   and    occurrence    in    New    York.      Twenty- 

third  rep.  State  Geologist  of  New  York,   15-88.     Albany,   1903.      (Bibliography.) 
H.   B.   Kuemmel.  —  The  peat   deposits  of  New  Jersey.     Economic   Geology,   II,   24-33. 

1907. 
C.  A.   Davis.  —  Peat  as  a  source  of  chemical   products.     Economic  Geology,   V,  36-58. 

Jan.,    1910. 

^G.    M.    Randall.  —  Synthetical    coal.       Engineering   and    Mining   Journal,    LXXI,    427 
and  525.      New  York,  1901. 


273 


274 


COAL. 


COAL, 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  COAL  IN 
TH&  UNITED  STATES  BY  THE 
PHINCIPRL  COAL-PRODUCING  STATES 

PENNSYLVANIA 

ILLINOIS 

WE. 3T  VIRGINIA 

OHIO 

ALABAMA 


Fig.    100. 


275 


COAL. 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  C-OML.  BY 
VARIOUS  COUNTRIES  SINCE.  1868. 
UNITED  STATES 


Fig.    101. 


276  PETROLEUM. 


PETROLEUM.1 

The  hydrocarbon  series  is  natural  gas,  naphtha,  petroleum,  mineral  tar, 

asphalt.    Petroleum  is  formed  from  naphtha  by  loss  of  volatile  matter 

and  oxidation;  petroleum  oxidizes  to  mineral  tar  or  ozokerite  which 

further  oxidizes  to  asphalt. 
Appearance. 

Black,  dirty  brown,  and  greenish. 
Gravity. 

Low — 7  to  10  in  the  black  oils. 

High — 14  to  24  in  the  lighter  greenish  oils. 
Composition. 

No  exact  chemical  formula. 

Carbon  is  the  essential  element. 

Uses. 

In  its  crude  condition. 

Lubricating,  fuel,  driving  engines,2  medicine,  smelting,3  roads,  manu- 
facture of  linoleum. 
After  being  refined. 

Kerosene,  gasoline,  paraffine,  for  illuminating  and  heating,  fuel  for  gas 

engines,  cleaning. 
Benzine  for  paints  and  varnishes. 
Vaseline  for  medicinal  and  other  purposes. 
Naphtha. 

Rhigolene,  a  highly  volatile  fluid;  when  atomized  it  produces  a  tem- 
perature  of  — 9°C,  and   is  used   as   a   local   anesthetic   and   as   a 

refrigerent. 
Cymogene,  a  freezing  product. 

*S.  F.  Peckharn. — Report  on  the  production,  technology,  and  uses  of  petroleum  and 
its  products.  Tenth  Census,  X.  Washington,  1884. 

Joseph  D.  Weeks. — Petroleum.  Eleventh  Census.  Report  on  mineral  indus- 
tries, 425-578.  Washington,  1892. 

B.  Redwood   and   G.    T.   Holloway.       Petroleum,   2   vols.       London   and   Philadelphia, 

1896. 

A.  Jaccard. — Le  petrole,  1'asphalte  et  le  bitume  au  point  de  vue  geologique.  Paris, 
1895. 

C.  F.    Mabery. — Composition    of   the    American   sulphur    petroleum.       Tour.    Franklin 

Inst.       Philadelphia,    1895. 

Several  articles  by  Sadtler,  Peckham,  and  Day,  in  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  XXXYI, 
93-136.  Philadelphia,  1897. 

2R.  J.  L.  Guppy.— Quar.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc.,  XLVIII,  519.      London,   1892. 
Edward    Orton.— American    Geologist,    XXV,    204-210.       Minneapolis,    1900.       Biblio- 
graphy. 

*A.    von    der    Ropp. — The    use    of    crude    oil    in    smelting.        Engineering    and    Mining 

Journal,   LXXV,   81-82.       New   York,    1903. 

F.  H.  Oliphant. — Petroleum.  Twentieth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  VI 
(continued),  1-102.  Washington,  1899. 


277 


278  PETROLEUM. 

Origin.4 

MendeljiefFs   theory    (1877)  :    water    in   contact    with   hot   carbides    of 
metals,   especially  of  iron,  decomposes;   oxygen   unites  with   iron; 
hydrogen  takes  up  carbon,  ascends,  and  condenses  to  oil  and  gas. 
The  generally  accepted  theory  is  that  oil  and  gas  are  slowly  and  spon- 
taneously distilled  from  organic  matter.6 
Deposits  of  organic  origin  accompany  the  oil  bearing  beds. 
Diatomaceous  beds  in  California;  diatoms  contain  oil.6 

Geology  of  petroleum. 

Oil  and  gas  are  found  in  sedimentary  rocks  of  almost  all  ages.' 
Diffused  through  many  rocks  where  it  is  now  unavailable;  possibility 

of  distilling  oil-bearing  shales.840 
Arkansas  lignite  yields  30.25  gals,  per  ton. 

Tennessee  black  shale  yields  30  to  40  gals,  per  ton. 
Association  of  gas,  oil,  and  salt  water;  and  the  necessity  of  studying 

them  together. 

Essential  conditions  are  the  same  in  all  fields." 
Rocks  that  may  contain  accumulations  of  oil  and  gas : 

1.  Conglomerates    or    porous    sandstones    as    in    Pennsylvania,    New 

York,   West  Virginia,   Kentucky. 

2.  Porous  limestones  as  in  Ohio  and  Indiana. 

Why  other  rocks  in  the  same  places  contain  no  oil  or  gas. 
Why  the  Trenton  limestone  yields  oil  in  some  places  and  not  in 
others. 

3.  Porous,  unconsolidated  sands  between  plastic  clays  and  sandstones 

in  California. 

*O.    C.    D.    Ross.— The  origin   of  petroleum.       Geol.    Magazine,   VIII,    506-508.       Lon- 
don,   1891. 

Leopold    Singer. — Beitrage    zur    Theorie    der    Petroleumbildung.       Wien,    1893. 

Richard   Anderson. — On    the    origin    of   petroleum.       Trans.    Geol.    Soc.    Glasgow,    IV, 
174-177.       Glasgow,    1874. 

Wm.    Brannt. — Petroleum:    its    history,    origin,    occurrence,    etc.       Philadelphia,     1895. 

D.  J.   Day. — The  conditions  of  accumulation  of  petroleum  in  the  earth.       Brit.   Amer. 
Inst.   Min.    Eng.,   no.    42,   467-472.       June,    1910. 

Eugene    Coste. — Volcanic    origin    of    oil.        Trans.    Amer.    Inst.     Min    Eng.,     XXXV, 

288-297.       New   York,    1905. 

"Edward   Orton. — Geological    probabilities   as   to   petroleum.       Bui.    Geol.    Soc.    America, 
IX,   85-100.       Rochester,    1898. 

"W.    Osier. — Canadian    Diatomacae.        Canadian    Naturalist,    V,    new    series,     142-151. 
Montreal,    1870. 

7J.   Wanner. — List   in   Geologische    Rundschau,    I,   24-26.       1910. 

"I.    I.    Redwood. — A  practical  treatise  on  mineral   oils  and  their  by-products.       London 

and    New    York,     1897. 
•W.   Topley. — The  geology  of  petroleum  and  natural  gas.       Geological   Magazine,   VIII, 

508-511.      London,    1891. 


279 


280  PETROLEUM. 

Origin   of    the    porosity    of    sandstone ;    porosity    of    limestone    due    to 

dolomitization ;  joint  cavities  in  shales. 

Importance    of   overlying   impervious   beds   to    confine   oil    and   gas. 
Relations  of  structure  to  accumulations  of  oil  and  gas.10 

Accumulations  are  local  and   do  not  occur  wherever   any  particular 

rock   is   found. 

Why  oil  and  gas  accumulate  in  some  places  and  not  in  others. 
T.  S.  Hunt's  anticlinal  theory  of  oil." 

Why  anticlines  are  only  locally  productive. 

How  monoclines  may  serve  the  same  purpose. 

Influence  of  gentle  and  violent  folds. 

How  folds  are  recognized  and  located. 
Oil  deposits  found  in  highly  disturbed  areas  are  usually  pockety,  and 

their  distribution  is  difficult  to  determine. 
Conditions  essential  to  oil  accumulations : 

1.  Source  from  which  the  oil  may  be  distilled. 

2.  Adjacent  porous  rocks  to  hold  the  oil. 

3.  Impervious  cover  to  prevent  its  escape. 

4.  Structural  features  favoring  accumulations. 
Surface  indications,  what  they  are  and  what  they  mean. 

Factors  concerned  in  quantity,  quality,  and  depth  of  oil  accumulations. 
Where  petroleum  and  natural  gas  are  not  to  be  sought. 

1.  Crystalline   or  eruptive   rocks. 

2.  Rocks  not  associated  with  a  possible  source  of  supply. 

3.  Rocks  whose  structural  position  precludes   the  accumulation  of  a 

distilled  product  from  some  associated  carbon  bearing  rock. 
Rock  pressure  of  oil  and  gas. 

In  western  Ohio  rock  pressure  is  from  650  pounds  to  the  square  inch 

down;   usually  between   300  and  400  pounds. 
In  Indiana  it  is  from  325  to  250  pounds. 

10F.    G.    Clapp. — A    proposed    classification    of    petroleum    and    natural    gas    fields    based 
on    structure.       Economic    Geology,   V,    503-521.       Sept.,    1910. 

"I.    C.    White.— Petroleum    and    natural    gas.       West    Virginia    Geological    Survey,    I, 

123-378.        Morgantown,    1899. 
T.     Sterry-Hunt. — Sur     les     petroles     de     1'Amerique     du     Nord.        Bui.     Soc.     Geol., 

France,    2me    ser.    XXIV,    570-573.       Paris,    1867. 
T.   S.   Hunt. — Notes  on  the   history   of  petroleum   or   rock   oil.       Canadian   Naturalist, 

VI,   241-255.       Montreal,    1861. 
I.    C.   White.— The   "anticlinal   theory"   of  natural  gas.       Bui.    Geol.    Soc.   Amer.,   Ill, 

204-216.       Rochester,    1892. 
Practical    demonstration    of   truth    of    this    theory    in    Bui.    U.    S.    Geological    Survey, 

309,    321,   322,   357,    396,   398,   406.       Washington,    1907-1910. 
M.    J.    Munn. — Studies    in    the    application    of    the    anticlinal    theory    of    oil    and    gas 

accumulation.       Economic   Geology,   IV,    141-157.       Mar.,    1909. 
M.    J.    Munn. — The    anticlinal    and    hydraulic    theories    of    oil    and    gas    accumulation. 

Economic    Geology,    IV,    509-529.       1909. 


281 


282  PETROLEUM. 

In   Pennsylvania  and   West  Virginia   it   has   been   recorded  as   high 

as  1,000  pounds. 

The   highest  pressure  reported   is   1,525   in   New  York  state. 
Origin  of  rock  pressure.12 
Lesley's   theory  of  the  expansion  of  gas. 
Orton's   theory   of   hydrostatic   pressure    through   the   Trenton    rocks 

that  outcrop  on  Lake  Superior. 

Orton's    law :    Rock   pressure    of   Trenton   limestone   gas   is   due    to   a 
saltwater  column  measured  from  about  600'  a.  t.  to  the  level  of  the 
stratum  yielding  gas. 
How  practically  demonstrated. 

Why  oil  wells  of  Pennsylvania  are  "watered  out." 
Applicability  of  this  law  modified  to  other  territories. 
Decrease  of  rock  pressure. 

In  Indiana  the  average  pressure  was  originally  325  pounds  in  1888; 
in  1897  it  was  191  pounds ;  in  November,  1898,  it  was  173  pounds.18 
Artificial  pressure  is  now  used  to  distribute  gas  which  has  been  col- 
lected in  large  tanks ;  it  is  also  used  to  force  oil  to  the  top  of  well 
from  bottom. 

Rock  pressure  suggests  that  gas  and  oil  cannot  rise  from  the  beds  in 
which  they  accumulated  except  when  the  rocks  are  faulted  or  other- 
wise opened. 

Distribution  Petroleum  in  the  United  States. 

The  salt  industry  was  the  forerunner  of  the  petroleum  industry. 

Boring  for  salt  water;  early  drill;   seed  bag. 
High  price  of  whale  oil. 
Oil  from  cannel  coal  and  shale." 

i2J.  P.  Lesley. — Consideration  of  the  pressure,  composition,  and  fuel  value  of  rock 
gas.  Ann.  rep.  Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania,  657-680.  Harrisburg, 
1886. 

Edward  Orton. — Origin  of  the  rock  pressure  of  natural  gas  in  the  Trenton  lime- 
stone of  Ohio  and  Indiana.  Bui.  Geol.  Soc.  of  America,  I,  87-98.  Rochester, 
1890. 

A.  M.  Miller. — Hydrostatic  vs.  lithopiestic  theory  of  gas  well  pressure.  Science, 
new  series,  XI,  192-193.  New  York,  1900. 

"Twenty-third  ann.  rep.  Geol.  and  Nat.  Hist.  Survey  of  Indiana,  1898.  Indian- 
apolis, 1899. 

"T.   C.   Branner. — The  oil-bearing  shales  of  the  coast  of  Brazil.      Trans.  Amer.   List. 

Min.    Eng.,    XXX,    537-553.       New    York,    1901. 
The  oil   shales  of  the  Lothians,   Scotland.       Engineering  and   Mining  Journal,    LXX, 

754.       New   York,    1900. 
Robt.    Dunlop.- — The    shale    oil    works    of    Orepuki,    New    Zealand.       Engineering    and 

Mining  Journal,  LXXII,  40-41.      New  York,   1901. 
E.    F.    Pittmann. — Kerosene   shale.       Mineral    Resources    of    New    South    Wales,    358- 

367.       Sydney,    1901. 


283 


284  PETROLEUM. 

The  principal  petroleum  regions  in  the  United  States. 
/.  The  Pennsylvania-New  York-West  Virginia  region. 

E.  L.  Drake's  successful  effort  to  get  oil  by  boring  at  Titusville,  Pa., 

in  1859.1' 

Low  price  from  over-production. 
Spouting  wells  or  gushers. 
Spread  of  exploration  into  Pennsylvania.1' 
New  York." 
West  Virginia.18 
The  Pennsylvania  oil  field  centers  at  Oil  City;  the  West  Virginia  field 

at  Sisterville. 
First  considerable  flowing  well  was  struck  in  1861,  yielding  300  barrels 

a  day. 

Phillips'  well  yielded  3,000  barrels  a  day.  A  well  near  Bradford  that 
yielded  25,000  barrels  in  1875,  produced  6,500,000  in  1878,  and  23,000,- 
000  in  1881. 

6,358  wells  were  put  down  in  1890. 

In  1903,  16,232  wells  were  bored  and  of  these  13,343  became  producing 
wells.  This  is  14  per  cent  increase  over  the  producing  wells  of  1902. 

//.  The  Ohio-Indiana  region.™  M 

The  Ohio  fields  center  at  Lima;  the  Indiana  fields  center  at  Montpelier. 
Oil  and  gas  are  from  Trenton  limestone  in  those  states. 
Confined  by  the  overlying  Utica  shale. 

"J.  S.  Newberry.— The  first  oil  well.  Harper's  Magazine,  LXXXI,  723-729.  Oct., 
1890. 

"J.  F.  Carll. — Oil  and  gas  fields  of  Western  Pennsylvania.  Geological  Survey  of 
Pennsylvania.  Harrisburg,  1890. 

J.  F.  Carll. — Report  on  the  oil  and  gas  regions.  Part  II,  ann.  rep.  Geological  Sur- 
vey of  Pennsylvania,  for  1886.  Harrisburg,  1887. 

A.  S.  Bolles. — Petroleum;  its  production  and  products  in  Pennsylvania.  Ann. 
rep.  Bureau  of  Industrial  Statistics,  1892.  Harrisburg,  1893. 

17E.  Orton. — Petroleum  and  natural  gas  in  New  York.  Bui.  30,  New  York  State 
Museum,  128.  Albany,  1900. 

"I.  C.  White. — Petroleum  and  natural  gas.  \Yest  Virginia  Geological  Survey,  I. 
1904. 

"J.  A.   Bownocker. — The   oil  and   gas-producing  rocks  of  Ohio.      Journal  of  Geology, 

X,   822-838.       1902. 

J.  A.  Bownocker. — The  occurrence  and  exploration  of  petroleum  and  natural  gas 
in  Ohio.  Geological  Survey  of  Ohio,  4th  series,  Bui.  1.  Columbus,  1903. 

"Edward    Orton. — Report    of   the    Geological    Survey    of    Ohio.       Vol.    VI,    Economic 

geology.       Columbus,    1888. 
A.    J.    Phinney. — The    natural    gas    fields    of    Indiana.       Eleventh    ann.    rep.    U.    S. 

Geological  Survey,   617-742.      Washington,   1891. 
E.    Orton. — Origin    and    accumulation    of    petroleum    and    natural    gas.        First    ann. 

rep.   Geological   Survey  of  Ohio,  55  et  seq.       Columbus,    1890. 

E.  Orton. — Petroleum,  natural  gas,  and  asphalt  rock  in  western  Kentucky.  Frank- 
fort, 1891. 


285 


286  PETROLEUM. 

The  rocks  are  gently  folded. 

In  1889  single  wells  in  Ohio  began  with  a  yield  of  10,000  barrels  a  day. 

///.  The  Illinois  region.11 
The  chief  producing  localities   are  Clark,   Crawford,   Cumberland,  and 

Lawrence  counties,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Illinois. 
Small  isolated,  but  unimportant,  pools  have  been  found  in  other  parts 

of  the  state. 
The  oil  is  from  Carboniferous  sandstones  or  sandy  shales,  capped  by 

impervious  strata  of  close-grained  Carboniferous  shale. 
The  rocks  are  very  gently  folded. 
The  presence  of  oil  was  discovered  in  the  early  sixties,  but  was  thought 

to  be  of  no  importance,  and  attempts  to  develop  it  were  abandoned. 
The.  development  has  been  rapid  since  1904. 
The  depth  of  the  wells  varies  from  300  to  2,000  feet. 
In   1908,   Illinois    ranked  third   among  the   states   in   the  quantity   and 

second  in  the  value  of  petroleum  produced. 

PRODUCTION  OF  THE  ILLINOIS  REGION. 

1905 181,084  barrels 

1906 4,397,050  barrels 

1907 24,281,973  barrels 

1908 38,844,899  barrels 

IV.  The  Texas-Louisiana  region?™ 
In  Texas  the  oil  occurs  in  Neocene  sedimentary   rocks  which  overlie 

Cretaceous   shales.28 
The  great  Beaumont  gusher2*  threw  oil  at  times  650  feet  into  the  air, 

and  flowed  from  100  to  500  barrels  per  hour. 
In  Louisiana  the  oil  comes  from  Upper  Cretaceous  and  Eocene  rocks.23 

21H.  F.  Bain. — Petroleum  in  Illinois.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXXXIII, 
755-756.  New  York,  1907. 

H.  F.  Bain.— Geology  of  Illinois  petroleum  fields.  Economic  Geology,  III,  481- 
491.  Aug.-Sept.,  1908. 

W.  G.  Burroughs. — The  petroleum  fields  of  the  U  S.  Engineering  and  Mining  Jour- 
nal, LXXXIX,  922.  New  York,  1910. 

W.  S.  Blatchley. — The  petroleum  industry  of  southeastern  Illinois.  Illinois  State 
Geological  Survey,  Bui.  2,  Urbana,  1906. 

MW.   B.  Phillips. — The  Beaumont  oil  field,   Texas.       Engineering  and  Mining  Journal, 

LXXI,   175.      New  York,   1901. 
W.    B.    Phillips. — Texas   petroleum.       Bui.    5    of   the    University    of   Texas.       Austin, 

1900. 
G.   D.   Harris. — Oil   in   Texas.       Science,   XIII,    666-667.       New   York,    1901. 

2»P.  J.  Fishback. — Geological  horizon  of  the  petroleum  in  southeast  Texas  and  south- 
west Louisiana.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXXIV,  476.  New  York, 
1902. 

The  new  oil  gushers  of  Jennings,  Louisiana.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal, 
LXXIII,  860.  New  York,  1902. 

Geology  of  Louisiana.       261-275.       Baton    Rouge,    1902. 

G.  D.  Harris. — Oil  and  gas  in  northwestern  Louisiana.  Bui.  8,  Geological  Survey 
of  Louisiana.  Baton  Rouge,  1909. 

"A.  F.  Lucas. — The  great  oil-well  near  Beaumont,  Texas.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min. 
Eng.,  XXXI,  362-374.  New  York,  1902. 


287 


288  PETROLEUM. 

V.  The  Oklahoma-Kansas  region.2* 
The  region  lies  within  the  northeastern  portion  of  Oklahoma  and  the 

southeastern  portion  of  Kansas. 
The  oil  is  from  Carboniferous  sandstones  of  two  classes : 

1.  Lenticular  beds  which  thin  out  and  end  abruptly. 

2.  Sandstone  beds  which  grade  into  shale. 

The   oil   bearing   sandstones    are   capped   by   impervious    Carboniferous 

black  shales  and  limestones. 
Natural   gas    generally   overlies   the   oil   but   in   the    Chanute,    Kansas, 

region  the  oil  overlies  the  gas,  the  two  being  separated  by  about  40 

feet  of  close-grained   shale. 
About  90  per  cent  of  the  oil  and  gas  of  this  region  comes  from  anticlinal 

folds. 

In  general  the  depth  of  wells  varies  from  500  to  2,350  feet. 
The  presence   of  oil   in   this   region   was   known,   through   the    surface 

seepages,  prior  to  1860,  but  little  development  work  was  done  until 

1903. 
Oklahoma  led  all  of  the  states  in  the  quantity  of  oil  produced  during 

1907  and  1908;  during  the  same  years,  Kansas  ranked  tenth  in  pro- 
duction. 

PRODUCTION   OF  THE   OKLAHOMA-KANSAS   REGION. 

Oklahoma.  Kansas. 

1907 43,524,128  barrels  1907 2,409,521  barrels 

1908 45,798,765   barrels  1908 1,801,781    barrels 

VI.  The  California  region.™ 
The  oil  originates  in  Eocene  and  Middle  Miocene  rocks. 

25E.  Haworth. — The  Chanute  oil-fields  in  Kansas.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal, 
LXXIV,  477-478.  New  York,  1902. 

Chas.  N.  Gould. — Extent  and  importance  of  Oklahoma  oil  fields.  Mining  Science, 
LVII,  73-74.  Denver,  1908. 

G.  I.  Adams,  E.  Haworth,  and  \V.  R.  Crane. — Economic  geology  of  the  lola  quad- 
rangle, Kansas.  Bui.  238,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1904. 

G.   P.   Grimsley. — Oil,   gas,  and  glass    ....    in  Kansas.       Topeka,    1903. 

W.  G.  Burroughs. — The  petroleum  fields  of  the  United  States.  Engineering  and 
Mining  Journal,  LXXXIX,  922-923.  New  York,  1909. 

D.  T.    Day. — Petroleum.       Mineral    Resources   of   the    U.    S.    for    1908,    II,    384-393. 

Washington,     1909. 

F.  C.  Shrader  and  E.  Haworth. — Economic  geology  of  the  Independence  quad- 
rangle, Kansas.  Bui.  296,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1906. 

»W.    L.   Watts.— Petroleum   in   California.       Trans.   Amer.    Inst.       Min.    Eng.,    XXIX, 

750-756.       New   York,    1900. 
W.     L.    Watts. — Oil    and    gas-yielding    formations    of    Los    Angeles,    Ventura,    and 

Santa    Barbara    counties,    California.       Bui.    11,    Calif.    State    Mining    Bureau. 

Sacramento,    1897. 
A.    S.    Cooper. — The    genesis    of    petroleum    and    asphaltum    in    California.       Bui.    16, 

Calif.   State   Mining  Bureau.       Sacramento,    1899. 
W.    G.     Young. — The    present    condition    of    the    petroleum    industry    in    California. 

Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,   LXXII,  227.      New   York,   1901. 
P.    W.   Prutzman. — Production   and   use  of   petroleum   in   California.       Bui.   32,    Calif. 

State    Mining    Bureau.       Sacramento,    1904. 

E.  W.    Claypole. — Notes   on   petroleum   in   California.       American   Geologist,   XXVII, 

150-159.       Minneapolis,    1901. 


289 


290  PETROLEUM. 

Relations  to  the  diatomaceous  shales. 


IDEAL  SECTION  SHOWING  GEOLOGIC   STRUCTURE    OF  THE 
CALIFORNIA  OILFIELDS. 

Fig.     102. — The    black    areas    represent    accumulations    of    petroleum. 

History. 
Early   use   by   the    Indians;    Mexicans    distilled    seepage   products    in 

1855. 

Drilling  was  done  from   1865  up  to   1875,  but  owing  to  poor  equip- 
ments but  little  oil  was  obtained. 
In    1887   only    four   companies   were    operating. 
Recent   development  began   in   1892;   the  greatest   development   from 

1900  to  the  present. 
Producing  districts  of   California. 

1.  The  Sunset,  Midway,  and  McKittrick  districts.27 

The  district  has  been  known  since  1856.  Its  first  important  develop- 
ment was  begun  in  1892. 

The  oil  is  in  the  Upper  Miocene,  Pliocene,  and  Quarternary  beds, 
having  been  derived  from  the  underlying  diatomaceous  Mon- 
terey shales. 

Average  wells  give  from  100  to  200  barrels  per  day  at  the  start. 

The  Lakeview  gusher  at  Maricopa  came  in  at  40,000  barrels  per 
day  and  continued  for  several  months. 

2.  The  Coalinga  district.28 

The  oil  originates  in  Tertiary  diatomaceous  shales,  and  accumulates 
in  Lower  Miocene,  Upper  Miocene,  and  Pliocene  beds. 

27Ralph  Arnold  and  H.  R.  Johnson. — Preliminary  report  on  the  McKittrick,  Sunset 
oil  district.  Bui.  406,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1910. 

28Ralph  Arnold  and  Robert  Anderson. — Preliminary  report  of  the  Coalinga  oil  dis- 
trict. Bui.  357,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1908. 

Ralph  Arnold  and  Robert  Anderson. — The  geology  and  oil  resources  of  the  Coalinga 
district.  Bui.  398,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1910. 

Ralph  Arnold.— Paleontology  of  the  Coalinga  district.  Bui.  396,  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey.  Washington,  1910. 


291 


292 


PETROLEUM. 
Miocene    oncf  7^/iocene 


Fig.    103. — Ideal    section   across   the   Coalinga    oil   fields   showing   the   oil,    derived   from 

the  Tejon   (Eocene)   beds,  confined  by  the  later  Tertiary  strata. 

(Arnold   and   Anderson.) 

Development  commenced  in  1891  and  has  been  greatest  since  1901.29 

3.  Ventura   county,  Los  Angeles,  Whittier,  and  Salt  Lake  districts.30 
Small  fields  which  are  separated  but  are  geologically  similar.     The 

oil    originates    in    the    Monterey    Middle    Miocene    shales    and 
accumulates  in  the  Pliocene  beds. 
Development  since  1892,  but  principally  since    1900. 

4.  The  Santa  Maria  oil  district.31 

Prospecting  was  first  done  in  1899;  rapid  development  since  1904. 
The  oil  has  accumulated  in  the  original  organic  shales  and  in  later 
Pliocene  beds. 

5.  The  Summerland  district.32 

The  origin  of  the  oil  is  similar  to  that  in  other  California  oil  fields. 
The  oil  accumulates  in  Pliocene  strata  which  are  under  the  ocean, 

and  wells  have  been  sunk  from  piers  built  out  over  the  water. 
The  first  well  was  bored  in  1877,  but  active  exploration  was  between 

1891  and  1895. 
These  wells  are  usually  small  producers. 

6.  The  Kern  River  oil  district. 

VII.  Minor  oil  regions. 

Colorado   at  and   south   of  Florence;   a  productive  area   of   14  square 
miles ;  the  oil  from  the  Fox  Hills  division  of  the  Upper  Cretaceous.33 

»W.  G.  Young.— The  Coalinga  oil  fields.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXXI, 
403.  New  York,  1901. 

S»G.  H.  Eldridge  and  Ralph  Arnold.— The  Santa  Clara  valley,  Puente  hills,  and  Los 
Angeles  oil  districts.  Bui.  309,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1907. 

"Ralph  Arnold  and  Robert  Anderson. — Preliminary  report  on  the  Santa  Maria  oil 
district,  Santa  Barbara  county,  California.  Bui.  317,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 
Washington,  1907. 

Ralph  Arnold  and  Robert  Anderson. — Geology  and  resources  of  the  Santa  Maria 
oil  district,  Santa  Barbara  county,  California.  Bui.  322,  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey.  Washington,  1907. 

^Ralph    Arnold. — The    geology   and    oil    resources    of    the    Summerland    district.       Bui. 

321,   U.    S.   Geological  Survey.      Washington,   1907. 

W.  G.  Young. — Submarine  oil  wells  in  California.  Engineering  and  Mining 
Journal,  LXXI,  54.  New  York,  1901. 

»3C.  W.  Washburn.— The  Florence  oil  field,  Colorado.  Bui.  381,  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey,  517-544.  Washington,  1910. 


293 


294 


PETROLEUM. 


At   Rangeley  the  oil  is  from  Upper  Cretaceous  shales  and  accumu- 
lates in  overlying  sandstones  of  the  same  age.34 

Wyoming  district.35 
Oil  occurs  in  the  Eocene  derived  from  Permian  and  Upper  Cretaceous 

shales. 
The   Shoshone   anticline    is   a   northwest-southeast   structural    feature 

along  which  the  producing  territory  lies. 
The  fields  are  in  Uintah  county. 


PETROLEUM. 

PRODUCTION    OF    CRUDE 
PETROLEUM    BY  THE    PRINCIPAL 
PETROLEUM   STATES   IN  THE. 
UNITED  STATES    SINCE    1859. 


Fig.   104. 

MH.    S.    Gale. — Geology    of    the    Rangely    oil    district,    Colorado.        Bui.    350,    U.    S. 
Geological    Survey.       Washington,    1908. 

J5The   petroleum   of   Salt   Creek,    Wyoming.       Petroleum   series,    Bui.    I   of   the    School 

of   Mines,    University   of   Wyoming.       Laramie,    1896. 

W.  C.  Knight. — The  petroleum  fields  of  Wyoming.  Engineering  and  Mining 
Tournal.  LXXII,  358-359;  628-630.  New  York,  1901;  LXXIII,  720-723.  New 
York,  1902. 


295 


296 


PETROLEUM. 


Alaska36  and  British  Columbia. 
Large   seepages   and   springs   of  oil   and   gas   in  the   Controller    Bay 

region. 

The  oil  is  derived  from  Eocene  shales  which  contain  organic  matter. 
Oil  seepages  about  Cook  Inlet. 
The  oil  is  from  the  Middle  Jurrasic  shales. 
A  little  prospecting  was  done  in  1903. 

Petroleum    in    Other    Countries. 
Russia. 

One  of  the  greatest  known  oil   fields  is  about   Bakou  on  the  Caspian 
Sea,  at  the  southeast  end  of  the  Caucasian  Mountains.37 


Fig.    105. — Section    showing    the    geological    structure    of    the    oil-bearing    strata    in    the 
Trans-Caucasian    region,    Russia.        (Konchin.) 

The  oil  is  from  Tertiary  rocks;   the  wells   are   comparatively  shallow, 
having  averaged  715'  in  1891 ;  formerly  they  were  much  shallower. 

MG.    C.    Martin.— The    petroleum    fields    of    the    Pacific    Coast    of    Alaska.        Bui.    250, 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey.      Washington,   1905. 

Bailey  Willis. — The  oil  of  the  northern  Rocky  Mountains.  Engineering  and  Min- 
ing Journal,  LXXII,  782-784.  New  York,  1901. 

"A.  Keppen. — The  industries  of  Russia.  Mining  and  Metallurgy,  81-90.  St.  Peters- 
burg, 1893. 

A.  Konchin. — De  Tiflis  a  Bakou.  Gisements  de  naphte  de  Bakou.  Guide  des 
Excursions  du  VII.  Congr&s  Geologique  International,  XXIV  art.  St. 
Petersburg,  1897. 

W.  F.  Hume. — Baku  and  its  oil  industry.      Nature,  LIV,  232-234.      London,   1896. 

A.  Beeby  Thompson. — The  oil  fields  of  Russia  and  the  Russian  petroleum  industry. 
4th  edition.  London,  1904. 

L.  V.  Dalton. — A  sketch  of  the  geology  of  the  Baku  and  European  oil  fields. 
Economic  Geology,  IV,  89-107.  1909. 

J.  C.  Chambers. — Petroleum  trade  in  Russia.  U.  S.  Consular  Reports,  54,  185- 
197;  57,  37-50;  63,  131-150.  1897. 

J.    D.    Henry. — Baku;    an   eventful    history.       London,    1906. 


297 


298 


PETROLEUM. 


The  actual  oil  bearing  area  covers  only  about  1,800  acres. 

The  product  was  2,000,000  barrels   in   1880;   33.355,669  barrels  in   1893, 

and  62,186,000  barrels  in  1908. 

Peru  and  Equador.  On  the  west  coast  of  South  America  there  are  im- 
portant oil  bearing  beds  of  Tertiary  age  from  Payta,  Peru,  to  north 
of  Guayaquil  in  Equador. 

Burma's  petroleum  comes  from   Miocene   rocks. 

Galicia,  on  the  north  flank  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  produces  petro- 
leum from  Tertiary  rocks.  The  rocks  are  greatly  folded,  the  wells 
are  shallow,  and  the  oil  viscous. 

Mexico.™ 

Oil  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of   Mexico,   in   the   state   of  Vera   Cruz, 
originates  in  Tertiary  diatomaceous  shales. 

P!^l:|--j-  i    i    i    i 

L, :  ' ' 


•IpOMllJUtoNJBMt 


PETROLEUM. 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  PETROL- 
|(t0' '    EUM  BY  THE.  PRINCIPAL 
PRODUCING  COUNTRIES 

SINCE   1859. 


Pearson    &    Son's    uncontrollable    oil    gusher. 
LXXXVII,    7.       New    York,    1909. 


Engineering    and    Mining    Journal, 


299 


300  PETROLEUM. 

Borneo.3* 

Oil  occurs  in  folded  Tertiary  rocks. 

OUTPUT  OF  THE  MINOR  OIL  PRODUCING  COUNTRIES. 

1898.  1908 

Barrels.  Barrels. 

Peru    69,000 1,011,180 

Galicia    2,376,108. 12,611,428 

Roumania   766,238 8,252.157 

India    542,110 5,047,038 

Japan    265,400 2,061,841 

Canada     750,000 527,987 

Mexico 19,207,159 

Limits  of  the  supply  of  petroleum. 

Order  of  gas,  oil,  and  water  in  producing  wells. 
Sequence  of  their  exhaustion. 

Good  but  dearer  oil  can  yet  be  manufactured  from  shale.39 
Oil  shales  of  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia.408 
The  oil  is  disseminated  through  Upper  Devonian  shales  which  carry 

42%  volatile  matter  which  can  be  distilled  out. 

Oil   shales  of  Scotland,"  New   Zealand,42  and  of  other  parts   of  the 
world. 

The  locating  of  oil  wells. 

How  far  geology  may  be  depended  upon. 

The  elements  of  uncertainty. 

Indications  of  oil  in  the  rock;  "Trenton   rock;"  "surface   indications." 

Oil  may  or  may  not  appear  at  the  surface. 

Method  of  drilling. 

Growth  of  deep  well  drilling  in  America. 

Determining  the  geologic  position  of  the  drill. 

Methods  of  labeling  and  preserving  borings. 

Importance  and  practical  use  of  well  records. 

The  depth  of  wells  varies   from  two  hundred   feet  or   less  to  over  five 

thousand  feet  according  to  circumstances. 

MCarl  Schmidt.  Borneo.  Bui.  Soc.  Geol.  de  France.  4me  ser.  I,  266-267.  Paris, 
1901. 

MC.  Baskerville. — Economic  possibilities  of  American  oil  shales.  Engineering  and 
Mining  Journal,  LXXXVIII,  149-154;  195-197.  New  York,  1909. 

40R.  W.  Ells. — Bituminous  oil  shales.  Canadian  Dept.  of  Mines.  Geol.  and  Min. 
Resources  of  New  Brunswick,  nos.  983,  107-114.  Ottawa,  1907;  55  and  1107. 
Ottawa,  1910. 

41D.     R.     Steuart.— The    shale     oil     industry    of     Scotland.        Economic     Geology,     III, 
573-598.        1908.        (Bibliography.) 

42A.  Beeby  Thompson.— Petroleum  mining  and  oil  field  development.  362.  Lon- 
don, 1910. 


301 


302  PETROLEUM. 

Wells  are  spaced  according  to  amount,  gravity  of  the  oil,  the  character  of 

the  rock,  and  the  cost  of  completing  the  wells. 

In  some  rocks  one  well  drains  five  acres ;  in  others  it  drains  fifty  acres. 
In  some  places  in  California  there  is  one  well  to  every  two  and  a  half 

acres ;  but  usually  one  well  drains  five  acres. 

Oil  and  gas  may  be  drawn  from  the  lands  of  others  without  redress. 
How  torpedoes  increase  or  decrease  the  flow  of  wells. 

The  transportation  of  petroleum. 

Originally  in  barrels,  then  in  tank  cars ;  dangers  and  losses. 
Now  there  are  about  25,000  miles  of  pipe  lines  in  the  Pennsylvania  fields. 
Pumping*  from  the  oil  fields  of  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,   Ohio,  and 

Indiana,  through  pipe  lines  to  the  sea-board  at  Baltimore,  Philadelphia, 

New  York,  Buffalo,  Cleveland,  and  Chicago. 
In  California  the  following  pipe  lines,  mostly  8  inches  in  diameter,  were 

in  operation  in  January  1,  1911: 

Miles. 

Waite  to  Point  Richmond,  Bay  of  S.  F 280.6 

Midway  and  Kern  to  Port  Costa 420.0 

McKittrick  to  Waite 48.5 

Coalinga  to  Mendota '  36.8 

Coalinga  to  Monterey  Bay 108.0 

Coalinga,  Kern,  and  Midway  to  Avila 200.0 

Santa  Maria  to  Avila,  near  Port  Harford 33.0 

Santa   Maria  to   Gaviota 70.0 

Orcutt  to  Port  Harford 66.0 


1,262.9 

Some  of  these  lines  are  double,  so  that  the  total  pipe  length  was  1,642  miles 
on  January  1,  1911. 

Pipe  lines  have  pumping  stations  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  miles  apart, 
according  to  the  grade.  Modern  pipe  lines  are  rifled,  and  have  the  in- 
sides  lubricated  with  water,  and  oil  is  heated  at  each  pumping  plant  to 
increase  its  fluidity. 

Refining  petroleum. 
Importance  of  oil  due  largely  to  its  being  refined. 

Effect  of  good,  cheap  light  on  civilization. 
Limestone  oils  contain  more  sulphur. 

These  were  first  used  for  lubricating;  in  1893  most  of  the  illuminating 

oils  were  made  from  these. 
Special  value  for  certain  oils:  lubricating;  lighting;  fuel. 


303 


304 


NATURAL    GAS. 


NATURAL  GAS.1 

Natural  gas  is  a  hydrocarbon,  CH4,  and  generally  contains  impurities, 
such  as  nitrogen  and  sulphur.  It  is  a  distillation  product  from 
petroleum,  coal,  and  other  organic  substances. 

Adrantages  as  a  fuel. 

Readily  transported ;  leaves  no  refuse ;  easily  ignited  and  regulated ;  boilers 

and  furnaces  last  longer  than  when  coal  is  used. 
In  1885  natural  gas  about  Pittsburg  replaced  3,650,000  tons  of  coal,  and 

displaced  5,000  men. 

It  replaced  coal  to  the  following  values  in  the  principal  gas  producing 
states : 

1908 

.$19,104,944 
.  8,244,835 
.  1,312,507 
.  14,837,130 
.  7,691,587 


1889 
In  Pennsylvania. .  .  .$11,593,989. . 

In  Ohio   5,123.569. 

In  Indiana    2,002.762. 

In  West  Virginia     ..         12,000.  . 
In  Kansas    .  15,873. 


Modes  of  Occurrence. 

1.  In  shales  and  limestones. 

2.  Reservoir  gas  in  sandstone,  conglomerates,  and  certain  dolomitic  lime- 

stones. 

The  relations  of  geologic  features  of  natural  gas  to  those  of  petroleum. 
Wells  at  the  crowns  of  anticlinal  domes  last  longest. 


Pig.    107. — Section  through   Findlay,   Ohio,   showing  the  anticline  at  the  crest  of  which 
the  great   oil  and  gas  wells  are   located.       (Orton.) 

The  relations  of  gas  and  water  to  each  other  in  the  rocks. 
Small  quantities  of  gas   are  of  common  occurrence   and  are  of  no   im- 
portance. 

as.        Twentieth 


n.     rep.     U.     S.     Geological     Survey, 
Twenty-first    ann.     rep.     U.     S.     Geo- 
ogical  'Survey,   pt.   VI,   293-318.       Washington,    1901. 


»F.     H.     Oliphant.— Nat 

pt.     VI,     203-250.        Washington.     1899 
loi 


305 


306  NATURAL    GAS. 

Characteristics  of  Shale  Gas.2 

1.  It  is  of  comparatively  small  volume. 

2.  It  lacks  uniformity  of  pressure.8 

3.  The  gas  comes  from  no  definite  horizon. 

4.  It  is  often  independent  of  the  oil  production. 

5.  It  has  good  staying  properties. 

6.  It  is  not  dependent  upon  geologic  structure. 

Characteristics  of  Reservoir  Gas. 

1.  The  largest  known  wells  are  of  this  kind. 

2.  The  pressure  is  uniform. 

3.  The  gas  is  at  definite  geologic  horizons. 

4.  Oil  accompanies  the  gas. 

5.  Geologic  structure  is  of  great  importance. 

The  Waste  of  Natural  Gas.4 
The  store  of  natural  gas  is   limited ;    so  excellent  a   fuel   should  not  be 

wasted. 
Murraysville  well  in  Pennsylvania  played  into  the  air  for  six  years  at  the 

rate  of  20,000,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  day. 
In  1885  the  waste  of  gas  within  piping  distance  of  Pittsburg  was  70,000,- 

000  cubic  feet  per  day. 

Gradual  Exhaustion. 

Only  time  can  show  how  long  individual  wells  can  last. 
Natural  gas  prepares  the  way  for  artificial  gas. 
The  gas  producing  states : 

In  1908  natural  gas  was  produced  in  18  states  of  which  only  11  were 
important :  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Kansas,  Indiana, 
New  York,  Oklahoma,  Illinois,  California,  Texas,  and  Kentucky. 

"Haworth    and    Adams. — Economic    geology    of    the    lola    quadrangle,    Kansas.        Bui. 

238,    U.    S.    Geological    Survey.       Washington,    1904. 

Edward    Orton. — Geological    structure    of    the    lola    (Kansas)    gas    field.        Bui.    Geol. 
Soc.    Amer.    X,    99-106.       Rochester,    1899. 

'A.    M.    Miller. — Hydrostatic    vs.    lithopiestic    theory    of    gas    well    pressure.        Science, 
new  series,  XI,  192-193.      New  York,   1900. 

4I     C.    White.- — Shortage   of   coal    in   the   northern   Appalachian   coal    field.       Bui.    Geol. 

Soc.   Amer.,    XX,    333-340.       New    York,    1910. 

For   other   references   to   the   geology   of   natural   gas   see    footnotes   under   Petroleum 
in    this    syllabus. 


307 


308 


NATURAL    GAS. 


NATURAL  GAS 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF 

NATURAL  GAS  IN  THE 
UNITED    STATES  BY  THE. 
PR  IN  CIPAL 

PRODUCING     STATES 

SINCE    1885. 


309 


310  BUILDING    STONES. 


BUILDING  STONES.1 

Nearly  all  kinds  of  stone  can   be   used  for  building  purposes;   those 
most  used  are  granites,  sandstones,  and  limestones. 

PROPERTIES     TO     BE     CONSIDERED     IX     BUILDING     STONES.2 

Ability  to  withstand  weather.3 

Ability  to  withstand  heat.* 

Color.5 

Hardness  before   and  after  being  worked. 

Density  and  porosity. 

Crushing  strength. 

Building  stones  are  seldom  subjected  to  more  than  from  one-sixth 
to  one-tenth  the  pressure  they  can  withstand. 

Stone  subjected  to  a  gradual  pressure  can  withstand  more  than  the 
same  stone  when  subjected  to  sudden  pressure. 

CRUSHING  STRENGTH   IN   LBS.   PER   SQ.   IX.   OF  TYPICAL  BUILDING   STONES. 

Granite  Limestone  Sandstone 

East    St.    Cloud..    128,000  Conshohocken,  Pa.. ..  16,340  Belleville     N     T       1  11,700 

Minn |26,250  Bedford      Ind            I     6,500  l"e'    W'    J"     /  10,250 

Mystic    River,    ...M8.125  a J  10.125      Albion,    N.    Y 13,500 

Conn /  22,250      Joliet,     111 14.775       Berea,     0 10.250 

Fourche    Mt,    Ark.                       Quincy,     111 9.797  Portland,     Conn..          4.945 

(syenite)      33,620 

Penryn,    Cal 6,117  Average     of     31)    ,.'«,  Average     of     45)      ,19- 

Average     of     27)  in    Wisconsin.,    j    25.313  in     Wisconsin.     /      6>12;3 
Wisconsin     gran-  I  27  024 
ites      and      rhyo-  j 
lites 

HV.  C.  Day. — Stone.  Twentieth  ann.  rep.  TJ.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt  VI  con- 
tinued, 269-464.  Washington,  1899. 

O.  Herrmann. — Steinbruchindustrie  und  Steinbruchgeologie.  Technische  Geologic 
nebst  praktischen  Winken  fur  die  Yer\yertung  Gesteinen.  Berlin,  1899. 

G.  P.  Merrill. — The  physical,  chemical,  and  economic  properties  of  building 
stones.  Maryland  Geological  Survey,  II,  pt.  II.,  47-121.  Baltimore,  1898. 

G.  P.  Merrill.— The  collection  of  building  and  ornamental  stones  in  the  U.  S. 
Nat.  Museum.  Smithsonian  rep.  1886.  pt.  II,  277-648.  Washington,  1889. 

Report  on  the  building  stones  of  the  United  States.  Tenth  Census,  1880,  X, 
1-393.  Washington,  1884. 

G.   P.   Merrill. — Stones  for  building  and  decoration.       New  York,    1897. 

Stone.      An  illustrated  magazine,   issued  monthly.       Chicago. 

=E.  R.  Buckley. — The  properties  of  building  stone  and  methods  of  determining  their 
values.  Journal  of  Geology,  VIII,  160-185.  Chicago,  1900. 

3A.   A.  Julien. — The  decay  of  the  building  stones  of  New   York  City.      Trans.  N.  Y. 

Acad.   Sci.,  II,   67-79;    120-138.      New  York,    1883. 

A.  A.  Julien. — Building-stones;  elements  of  strength  in  their  constitution  and  struc- 
ture. Jour.  Franklin  Inst.,  CXLVII,  257-442.  Philadelphia,  1899. 

H.  A.  Cutting. — Durability  of  building  stones.  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  CXXI,  410.  New 
Haven,  1881. 

«\V.  E.  McCourt. — Fire  tests  on  some  New  York  building  stones.  Bui.  100,  N.  Y. 
State  Museum.  Albany,  1906. 

5J.  Gemmell. — Color  in  architecture.  Stone,  XX,  428-431.  New  York,  May, 
1900. 


311 


312  BUILDING   STONES. 

Distribution. 

Stone  that  may  be  utilized  for  building  is  found  in  nearly  all  countries, 
and  in  almost  all  geologic  formations. 

GRANITE. 

Granite  has  an  average  specific  gravity  of  2.66,  is  a  highly  crystalline 
rock,  varying  widely  in  texture  and  color,  with  quartz  and  feldspar 
as  essential  constituents ;  mica  and  hornblende  with  other  minerals 
are  usually  present. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  granite;  those  most  in  use  for  building 
purposes  are  biotite  granite;  muscovite  granite;  hornblende  granite. 

Uses. 

In  massive  structures. 

As  an  ornamental  stone  for  monuments,  and  interior  decorations. 
Damage  done  granite  buildings  by  fire. 

Distribution. 
Geological. 

Granites  may  be  of  any  age. 

They  occur  massive,  never  stratified;   often   as   cores   of  mountain 

ranges;  sometimes  as  dikes. 
Geographical. 

Granite  has  a  world  wide  distribution. 

The  New  England  states  are  the  principal  granite  producers  of  the 

United  States. 
Vermont: 
Massachusetts.7     The  quarries  at  Quincy  are  the  most  important;-the 

stone  is  coarse  grained,  and  usually  dark  blue-gray. 
Maine.      The  granites  gray  (largely),  pink,  and  red. 

Largest  quarries  at  Vinalhaven. 

California8  granite  very  generally  distributed  through  the  state.     There 
are  important  quarries  at  Rocklin,  Raymond,  and  Penryn.      The 
stone  is  fine  grained;  the  color  from  light  gray  to  dark  gray. 
Wisconsin.6 

•E.  R.  Buckley. — On  the  building  and  ornamental  stones  of  Wisconsin.  Bui.  4, 
Geological  Survey  of  Wisconsin.  390-394.  Madison,  1898. 

E.  R.  Buckley. — Results  of  tests  on  Wisconsin  building  stones.  Journal  of  Geology, 
VIII,  526-567.  Chicago,  1900. 

7T.  N.  Dale. — The  chief  commercial  granites  of  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire, 
and  Rhode  Island.  Bui.  354,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1908. 

'Structural  and  industrial  materials  of  California.       Bui.   38,  Calif.   State   Min.    Bureau. 

Sacramento,    1906. 
Folio  5.      U.   S.   Geological   Survey,  Washington,    1894. 


313 


314  BUILDING   STOXES. 

Maryland.9 

Rhode   Island.      The  principal   quarries  are   near  Westerly;   the  rock 

is  biotite  granite,  fine  grained;  in  color  from  pink  to  light  gray. 
Connecticut:    granite    and    gneiss,    fine    grained;    color,    mostly    light 

gray. 
New  Hampshire  has  granite  in  the   eastern  part  of  the  state;   color, 

light  gray  to  white;  fine  grained. 
Georgia  has  light-gray  granite  near  Atlanta. 
Granite  is  quarried  in  many  other  states,  but  to  a  less  extent. 

VALUE  OF  GRANITE  QUARRIED  IN  THE  PRINCIPAL  PRODUCING  STATES. 


Vermont     
Maine     
Massachusetts    .  .  . 
California 

1898 
.$1,084,218.... 
.   1,032,621.... 
.   1.650.508.... 
247,429  

1908 
$2,451,933 
2,027,508 
2,027,463 
1,684.504 

Wisconsin     

.      175.867  

1,529.781 

Georgia    
Washington    
New    Hampshire. 

.      339.311  
9,700  
.     683  595 

970.832 
870.944 
867028 

North    Carolina.  . 
Maryland    
Minnesota    
Connecticut    
Rhode    Island.... 
New    York  
Delaware     
New    Jersey  

79,969  
.      317,258.... 
.  .       79.309  
.      682,768.... 
.      320,242.... 
.      516,847.... 
.      677,754  
.      753,513  

764.272 
762.442 
629.427 
592.904 
556,474 
367,066 
195.761 
125,804 

LIMESTONES. 

See  under  "Marble,"  and  "Limestones  other  than  marbles." 

SANDSTONES. 

Sandstones  are  fragments!  sedimentary  rocks  occurring  in  all  geologic 
formations,  having  quartz  sand  as  an  essential  constituent.  In 
color  they  vary  from  white  to  blue,  brown,  and  red.  The  color 
and  adaptability  are  determined  largely  by  the  cementing  material. 
Freshly  quarried  sandstones  are  often  soft,  owing  to  the  water 
contained,  and  harden  upon  exposure. 
Sandstones  vary  greatly  in  texture  and  color. 

They   may   be    quartzites,    flagstones,    freestones,    calcareous    sand- 
stones, or  ferruginous  sandstones. 


»G    P.   Merrill  and  E.   B.   Mathews. — The  building  and  decorating  st 
Maryland  Geological  Survey,  II,  47-247.      Baltimore,   1898. 


:ones  of   Maryland. 


315 


316  BUILDING   STONES. 

Geologic  Relations. 

Sandstones  are  of  sedimentary  origin,  and  subject  to  the  conditions  of 
other  sedimentary  deposits. 

Sandstones  in  the  United  States. 

Ohio:  the  most  important  quarries  are  in  the  Berea  Grit  (Lower  Car- 
boniferous) in  the  northern  part  of  the  state. 
The  stone  is  fine  grained  and  the  color  from  buff  to  blue. 
Pennsylvania:    Triassic    sandstones.10-  The    principal    quarries    are    in 
Dauphin    county.       Color,    "deep    bluish-brown,    slightly    purple," 
with  reddish-brown  layers. 
Connecticut:   Triassic    sandstone,   brown    and   red.      The    quarries   at 

Portland  are  the  most  important. 
New  York:11  Cambrian  sandstone  (Potsdam);  color,  very  light  to  light 

red;  very  hard. 
Upper    Silurian    (Medine)    sandstone;    gray    to    red;    rather    coarse 

texture. 
Devonian  (Hamilton)  sandstone;"  color,  "dark  blue-gray;"  compact, 

fine  grained. 
New  Jersey:  red  and  dark  brown  Triassic  sandstones.      Much  used  in 

eastern  cities. 
Other  states. 

Red  sandstones  of  Colorado,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  California. 
Snuff  colored  sandstones  of  Arkansas. 


VALUE    OF    SANDSTONES    QUARRIED    IN    THE    CHIEF    PRODUCING    STATES. 

1898 

1908 

New    York.... 

.$   566,133  

.  .  .  .$1,774,843 

Pennsylvania    .  . 

.      478,451  

....   1,368,784 

Ohio    

1494746 

1  244  752 

Washington    .  . 

.       15,575  

....      464,587 

Arizona    

27,444  

....      396,458 

California    .... 

.      358,908  

....      330,214 

Massachusetts 

91,287  

.  .  .  .      241,462 

Wisconsin     .  .  . 

80,341  

.  .  .  .      219,130 

Minnesota    

.      175810 

197  184 

Colorado    

89,637  

....      181,051 

10T.    C.    Hopkins. — Building    materials    of    Pennsylvania.        I,    Brownstones.        Appen- 
dix to  ann.   rep.   Pennsylvania   State   College   for    1896. 

"J.   C.    Smock. — Building  stone   in   the    State  of  New  York.       Bui.   of  the   New   York 
State   Museum,   no.    3.       Albany,    1888. 

"J.   C.    Smock.— Building  stone  in  the   State   of  New  York.       Bui.   of  the  New   York 
Museum,   II,   no.    10.       Albany,    1890. 

"H.  T.   Dickinson. — Bluestone  and  other  sandstones  in  the  upper   Devonian  of  N.  Y. 
State.       Bui.    61,    New    York    State    Museum.       Albany,    1903. 


317 


318  BUILDING    STONES. 

OTHER  BUILDING  STONES. 

Conglomerates:  coarse  grains  or  pebbles  held  together  by  some  cementing 
material;  brjeccia  is  a  kind  of  conglomerate  in  which  the  fragments 
are  angular. 

Slates:13  metamorphosed  clay  shale,  usually  of  some  dark  color ;  much 
used,  for  roofing,  school  slates,  blackboards,  mantels,  flagging,  and  bil- 
liard tables.  Usually  found  in  regions  of  folded  rocks. 

Tuff:  volcanic  rocks;  when  consolidated  are  sometimes  used  in  buildings. 
Extensively  used  for  ballast  on  the  Santa  Fe  railway. 

Gneiss  in  composition  is  the  same  as  granite,  but  it  shows  a  foliated  or 
banded  structure ;  it  is  extensively  used  for  buildings  in  Brazil. 

Schists  in  structure  are  somewhat  similar  to  gneiss.  The  schists  split 
readily  and  are  much  used  for  flagging,  and  sometimes  in  foundations. 

Syenite  is  like  granite,  except  that  it  contains  no  quartz.  The  syenite  near 
Little  Rock,  Arkansas,  an  excellent  building  stone,  is  blue  or  gray  in 
color.  Average  crushing  strength  (per  sq.  inch  in  2-inch  cubes) 
33,620  Ibs.14 

Augite:  a  dark-colored  eruptive  rock,  usually  containing  magnesium  and 
iron,  is  used  some  for  buildings,  and  extensively  in  paving. 

Serpentine:  a  hydrous  silicate  of  magnesia,  derived  from  the  alteration 
of  eruptive  rocks ;  the  color  is  usually  green  or  yellowish,  sometimes 
brown,  red,  or  almost  black.  The  variety  known  as  verde-antique  is 
much  used  for  interior  decorations. 

"T.  N.  Dale. — Slate  deposits  and  slate  industry  of  the  United  States.  Bui.  275, 
U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1906.  Bibliography. 

14T.  Francis  Williams. — The  igneous  rocks  of  Arkansas.  Ann.  rep.  Geological  Sur- 
vey of  Arkansas  for  1890,  II,  42-53.  Little  Rock,  1891. 


319 


320 


MARBLE.1 

"Any  limestone,  whether  compact,  crystalline,  or  granular,  which  will  re- 
ceive a  polish  and  is  suitable  for  ornamental  purposes,  is  considered 
a  marble." 

Uses. 

Marble  is  usually  available  for  all  of  the  various  uses  of  ordinary  lime- 
stone. 

Monumental  and  decorative  interior  work  and  statuary. 
Adaptations  of  special  colors  and  varieties. 

Origin  and   Occurrence. 

Marbles  are  mostly  metamorphosed  limestones,  and  originated  as  organic 

sedimentary  beds. 

Forms,   structural  disturbances,  and  changes  of  the  beds. 
Kinds  of  marble. 

Marbles  vary  from  mottled  impure  limestone  to  the  finest  and  most 
highly   crystalline   white   varieties,    and    from   white    through    all 
mottled  and  variegated  colors  to  black. 
Statuary  marble  must  have  a  perfectly  uniform  color  and  be  free  from 

flaws. 

Parian  marble  the  finest  statuary  marble ;   supply  about  exhausted. 
Pentelican  marble  much  used  by  the  ancients. 
Cararra  marble,  from  the  Apennines,  used  almost  entirely  by  sculptors 

at  present.2  Color  snow-white ;  texture  saccharoidal. 
Marbles  of  all  kinds,  mottled,  banded,  or  of  uniform  color,  are  used 
for  ordinary  interior  decorations.     Light  tints  most  used;  black 
marble  rare. 
"Onyx"  marble,  a  crystalline  cave  deposit ;  its  beauty  and  scarcity.3 

Distribution. 

'Marble  has  a  very  general  distribution,  both  geologic  and  geographic. 

FOREIGN    MARBLE,   PRINCIPAL   PRODUCERS. 

Austria.  Belgium,  France,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  are  all  rich  in 
marbles.  The  Italian  marbles  from  the  Apennines,  used  by  sculp- 
tors, are  the  most  noted. 

Report  of  the  building  stones  of  the  United  States.  Tenth  Census,  1880,  X,  1-393, 
with  plates.  

G.   P.    Merrill. — Stones   for  building  and  decoration,   83-166.       New   York,    1897. 

Edward  Hull. — The  building  and  ornamental  stones  of  Great  Britain  and  foreign 
countries.  London,  1872. 

2See  Baedecker's  Northern  Italy  under  "Carrara,"  and  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine, XXI,  326-329.  Washington,  1910. 

3G.  P.  Merrill.— Onyx-marbles.  Rep.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.  for  1893,  541-585.  Wash- 
ington, 1895. 


321 


322  MARBLE. 

Mexico  formerly  contained  a  large  deposit  of  marble,  popularly  called 

"Mexican  onyx";  this  deposit  is  practically  exhausted  and  most  of 

the  so-called  "Mexican  onyx"  is  now  obtained  from  other  sources. 

Marble  in  the  United   States. 
Vermont4  marble  is  "white,  clouded,  or  blue." 

The  principal  quarries  are  at  Rutland. 

Tennessee5  marble  is  pinkish  and  variegated.  The  beds  are  of  Lower 
Silurian  age,  and  there  are  extensive  quarries  in  the  vicinity  of 
Knoxville. 

Georgia6  has  the  same  kind  of  marble  as  that  of  Tennessee. 
Alabama7  has  extensive  deposits  of  unworked  marble  also  like  the  Ten- 

nessee marble. 
New  York8  has  large  quarries  at  Gouveneur,  where  the  "St.  Lawrence" 

marble  is  quarried. 
Arkansas9  marble  is  the  same  as  that  of  Tennessee  and  Georgia. 

THE    VALUE   OF   THE   PRODUCTION    OF    MARBLE. 


Vermont    $ 
Georgia     
Tennessee    
New    York    .  .    . 
Massachusetts      . 
Alabama    
Alaska    
Pennsylvania    .    . 
Maryland    
California    

1898. 
2,067,938.. 
656.808.. 
316,814.  . 
432  072 

1908. 
$4,679,960 
916,281 
790,233 
...      706  858 

38210 

175648 

118580 

39,373.  . 
120,525.. 
40,200.  . 

103,888 
102,747 
79.317 
60,408 

4A.    D.    Hager.  —  Geology   of   Vermont.       II,    751-780.       Claremont,    N.    H.,    1861. 
"James    M.    Stafford.  —  Geology   of    Tennessee.       Nashville,    1869. 

«S.    W.     McCallie.  —  A    preliminary    report    on    the    marbles    of    Georgia.        Geological 
Survey  of  Georgia,   Bui.   no.    1.      Atlanta,    1907. 

7P     Bryne.  —  Marble    formations   of   the    Cahaba    river,    Ala.       Engineering   and    Mining 

Journal,   LXXII,   400.       New   York,    1901. 
6J.   C.    Smock.  —  Building  stone   in   the   State   of   New   York.       Bui.    no.    3,    New   York 

State  Museum  of  Nat.  Hist.      Albany,   1888. 

8T    C.   Smock.  —  Building  stone  in  New  York.      Bui.  of  the  New  York  State   Museum, 
II,    no.    10.       Albany,    1890. 

•T     C.    Hopkins.  —  Marbles    and    other    limestones.       Ann.    rep.    Geological    Survey    of 
Arkansas   for    1890,   IV.       Little   Rock,    1893. 


328 


324 


MARBLE. 


D 


fc&RS: 


O  SI 


E35 


MARBLE 

THE.  PRODUCTION  OF  MAR-   : 
OLE  BY  THE  PRINCIPAL  PRO- 
DUCING 3TATE3    8lNCt   1836.    I 


t  VERMONT 
^4  GEORGIA 

1|T|:  TENNESSEE 


t   NEW  YORK 


MARYLAND 


4444- 


I 

S 


5 


= 


Fig.    109. 


325 


326  LIMESTONES. 


LIMESTONES   OTHER  THAN  MARBLES.1 

Limestone   is   a   sedimentary  rock  composed  of  calcium  carbonate,  often 
containing  some  magnesium  carbonate ;  it  always  contains  impurities. 

Uses. 

For  building  purposes. 
Importance    as    a   building    stone. 
'    Crushing  strength  of  62  samples,  14,545  pounds  per  square  inch,  ranging 

from  about  5,000  pounds  to  25,000  pounds. 
As  a  flux  in  smelting  ores. 
Lithographing. 
In  the  manufacture   of  lime  and  cement. 

Manufacture  of  carbonic  acid  gas.     Marble  is  generally  used   for  this 

purpose. 

Whiting,  from  chalk. 
Effect  of  limestone  on   the   manufacturing  and  agricultural   wealth   of 

a  country. 

Origin  of  Limestones. 
Organic. 

Rhizopods,  pteropods,  and  heteropods  over  deep  seas;  corals,  echino- 
derms,  crustaceans,  bryzoans,  brachiopods,  lamellibranchs,  gastero- 
pods,  cephalopods  in  off  shore  or  comparatively  shallow  waters; 
calcareous  algae. 

Chemical    by   precipitation    from    solution,    as    in    the    case   of   travertine 
deposits. 

Occurrence  and  Distribution. 

When  of  sedimentary  origin  the   beds  have  the  forms  and   structural 

characters  of  other  sedimentary  rocks. 

World-wide    geographic    and    geologic    distribution    of    limestones. 
In  colors  limestones  vary  from  white  to  black  through  shades  of  buff 

and  blue.     They  generally  weather  to  lighter  colors. 
Limestones  vary  in  character  from  calcareous  shales  and  sandstones  to 

pure  limestones. 

Shaly  limestones;  sandy  limestones. 
Crystalline  limestones  are -mostly  marbles. 
Chalk  is  a  soft  limestone. 

'Report    on    the    building    stones    of    the    United    States.       Tenth    Census,    X,    1-393, 

with    plates.        Washington,     1884. 

G.    P.    Merrill. — Stones   for  building  and   decoration,    122-166.       New    York,    1897. 
T.   C.   Hopkins.— Marbles   and   other   limestones.       Geological   Survey  of   Arkansas    for 
1890.    IV.       Little    Rock,    1893. 


327 


328  LIMESTONES. 

Oolitic  limestones ;   example,  the  Bedford  stone  of  Indiana. 
Lithologic  limestones. 
Dolomitic  limestone.2 

Dolomite  is  a  carbonate  of  calcium  and  magnesium,  with  the  propor- 
tions varying  1  to  1,  1  to  3,  or  1  to  5. 
Hydraulic  limestones. 

PRINCIPAL  LIMESTONE  PRODUCING  STATES. 

Pennsylvania3  has  limestones  of  Lower  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Lower 
Carboniferous  ages.  They  are  used  for  building,  and  as  a  flux  in 
smelting. 

Indiana  produces  the  well  known  "Bedford  oolitic  stone"4  of  Lower 
Carboniferous  age,  which  is  the  most  important  building  stone  in 
that  state.  The  principal  quarries  are  in  Lawrence  and  Monroe 
counties. 

Ohio  :5  has  limestones  of  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Carboniferous  ages 
which  are  quarried  in  various  parts  of  the  state.  They  are  usually 
dull  in  color  and  are  used  mostly  for  rough  work. 

Illinois :  the  largest  quarries  are  in  Will  county  at  Lemont  and  Joliet. 
The  rock  is  of  Niagara  age,  and  the  stone  is  light  drab  and  fine 
grained.  The  Trenton  limestone  of  Jo  Daviess  county  is  also 
important. 

Michigan.6 

PRODUCTION  OF  LIMESTONE. 

1897.  1908. 

Pennsylvania    .  $2,327,870 $4,057,471 

Indiana    2,012,608 3,643,261 

Ohio    1,486,550 3,519,557 

Illinois    1,483,157 3,122.552 

Missouri    1,018,202 2,130,136 

New  York   ...   1,697,780 2,584,559 

Wisconsin    ...      641,232 1,102,009 

2The    origin    of    dolomite.       American    Journal    of    Science,    CXLIX,    426-427.       New 

Haven,    1895. 
Hall    and    Sardeson. — (Origin    of    the    dolomites.)        Bui.    Geol.    Soc.    America,    VI, 

193-198.       Rochester,    1894. 

SF.  G.  Clapp. — Limestones  of  southwestern  Pennsylvania.  Bui.  249,  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey.  Washington,  1905. 

*\V.  S.  Blatchley. — Oolite  and  oolitic  limestone  for  the  manufacture  of  Portland  ce- 
ment. 25th  ann.  rep.  Dept.  Geol.  and  Nat.  Hist.  Indiana  Geological  Survey, 
322-330.  Indianapolis,  1901. 

T.  C.  Hopkins  and  C.  E.  Siebenthal. — The  Bedford  oolitic  limestone  of  Indiana. 
Twenty-first  ann.  rep.  Geological  Survey,  Indiana,  290-421.  Indianapolis,  1896. 

5E.  Orton,  Jr.  and  S.  V.  Peppel. — The  limestone  resources  and  the  lime  industry 
in  Ohio.  4th  ser.  Bui.  4,  Geological  Survey  of  Ohio.  .  Columbus,  1906. 

•A.  C.  Lane. — Michigan  limestones  and  their  uses.  Engineering  and  Mining  Jour- 
nal, LXXI,  662-3,  693-4,  725.  New  York,  1901. 


329 


330  LIMESTONES. 

LITHOGRAPHIC   LIMESTONE.7 

Lithographic  stone  must  contain  no  grains  or  crystals,  and  must  be  of 
even  texture. 

Distribution. 

The  lithographic  limestone  of  commerce  is  almost  all  from  Solenhofen, 

Bavaria;  it  is  of  Upper  Jurassic  age. 
Kentucky    furnishes    all    the    lithographic    limestone    produced    in    the 

United  States.8 
Lithographic  limestone  has  been  found  in  Alabama,  Arizona,  Arkansas, 

Illinois,    Indiana,    Iowa,    Missouri,    Tennessee,    Texas,    Utah    and 

Virginia.     It  has  not  been  found  of  commercial  importance  as  yet 

in  these  states. 

LIME.9 

The  importance  of  lime. 

Lime   (CaO)  is  made  by  driving  off  the  carbonic  acid  (CO2)   from  lime- 
stones   (CaCOs). 

Uses. 

In  making  mortar,  plaster  and  cements,  and   for  whitewashing. 
As  a  fertilizer. 

Value  of  lime  as  a  fertilizer;  its  effect  upon  soil.10 
As  a  disinfectant. 
Uses    in    chemistry    and    for    manufacturing   calcium    carbide    to    make 

acetylene  gas. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  lime :  common  lime,  and  hydraulic  lime. 
Characteristics  of  lime. 
Slaking. 
Rehardening  or  setting  with  foreign  substances. 

Sand  in  mortar  furnishes  points  on  which  the  lime  crystallizes  in 

setting. 
Importance  of  lime  in  engineering  and  architectural  works. 

Occurrence. 

Limestone  available  for  the  manufacture  of  lime  is  widely  distributed. 
Lime  products  are  usually  manufactured  near  the  limestone  deposits. 

TS.    J.    Kubel. — The   production   and   consumption   of   lithographic    stone.       Engineering 

8E.   O.   Ulrich. — The  lithographic   stone   deposits   of   eastern   Kentucky.       Engineering 
and  Mining  Journal,  LXXIII,  895-6.      New  York,   1902. 

•E.  C.  Eckel. — Cements,  limes,  and  plasters.      New  York,   1905. 

10\V.    B.    Elliott. — Lime    in    Virginia    soils.       Bui.    176    of    Virginia    Agr.    Exp.    Sta. 
Mar.,    1910. 


331 


332  LIMESTONES. 


HYDRAULIC  LIMESTONE.11 

Hydraulic  limestone  contains  clay  and  furnishes  a  lime  that  will  set  under 
water. 

The  hydraulic  limestones  of  the  United  States  are  usually  shaly  and  con- 
tain considerable  magnesia. 

Used  for  making  hydraulic  lime  and  cement. 

ANALYSES   OF   HYDRAULIC  LIMESTONES. 

Rosendale,  N.  Y.12  New  York.  Wisconsin. 

Lime  carbonate  44.34  45.54  48.29 

Magnesia  carbonate  23.92  25.94  29.19 

Silica   22.14  15.37  17.56 

Alumina         1       3go  9.13  1.40 

Iron  oxide   /  2.25  2.24 

Water  and  organic  matter .83  1.20 

Distribution. 
Geologic. 

Most  of  the  hydraulic  limestone  of  the  United  States  occurs  in  Pale- 
ozoic rocks. 
Geographic. 

Hydraulic  limestone  is  by  no  means  so  widespread  as  ordinary  lime- 
stone. The  principal  states  in  which  it  occurs  and  is  utilized  are 
New  York,  Indiana,13  and  Kentucky,  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin,  Illi- 
nois, and  Iowa.14 

Hydraulic  Cement. 

Hydraulic  cement  is  made  from  hydraulic  limestone ;  it  sets  under  water. 

Composition. 

How  made." 

Uses  and  importance.16 

11Q.  A.  Gillmore. — On  limes,  hydraulic  cements,  and  mortars.  Ninth  edition. 
New  York,  1888. 

"Cement  mineral  industry  for  1894,  III,  89-96.      New  York,   1895. 

13C.  E.  Siebenthal. — The  Silver  Creek  hydraulic  limestone  of  southeastern  Indiana. 
25th  ann.  rep.  Dept.  of  Geol.  and  Nat.  Resources.  Indiana  Geological  Sur- 
vey. 331-389.  Indianapolis,  1901. 

"E.  C.  Eckel  and  H.  F.  Bain.— Cement  and  cement  materials  of  Iowa.  Geological 
Survey  of  Iowa,  XV,  33-124.  Des  Moines,  1905. 

15The  manufacture  of  Rosendale  cement.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXIV, 
459.  New  York,  1897. 

"S.    B.    Newberry. — On    the    theory    of    hardening    of    cements.       Jour.    Soc.    Chem. 

Industry,    889.       1897. 
Frank  H.  Eno. — The  uses  of  hydraulic  cement.      Geol.   Sur.,  Ohio.,  4th  ser.,   Bui.   2. 

Columbus,    1904. 

A.   V.    Bleininger. — The    manufacture   of   hydraulic   cements.       Bui.    3,    Geol.    Survey 
of  Ohio.       Columbus,    1904. 


333 


334  LIMESTONES 

The  principal  manufacturing  district  is  Rosendale,  Ulster  county,  New 
York.  The  industry  was  established  in  1823.  The  output  of  the 
Rosendale  district  in  1898  was  3,245,225  barrels,  worth  $2,103,554. 

The  district  next  in  importance  is  that  of  Kentucky  and  Indiana,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Louisville.  Its  output  in  1898  was  1,929,018  barrels,  worth 
$482,254. 

North  Dakota  also  manufactures  cement." 

17V.    J.    Melsted. — The   manufacture   of    natural    hydraulic    cement.       5th    Biennial    rep. 
State   Geological   Survey,   North   Dakota,    212-225.       Bismarck,    1908. 


CHALK18  AND   MARLS.19 

Chalk  is  an  earthy,  white  limestone,  for  the  most  part  composed  of  the 

skeletons  of  minute  organisms. 
Mode  of  formation. 
Marl  or  bog  lime.19 

Uses. 

For  making  whiting. 
For  crayons. 

In  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement.20 
In  fertilizing. 

Distribution. 
Geographic. 

England  and  France  are  the  principal  producers  of  chalk. 
Deposits  of  chalk  are  found  in  the  United  States  in  Arkansas,  Texas, 
Iowa,  and  Nebraska. 

18J.  C.  Branner. — The  cement-materials  of  southwest  Arkansas.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst. 
Min.  Engs.,  XXVII,  42-63.  New  York,  1898. 

J.  A.  Taff. — Chalk  of  southwestern  Arkansas.  22nd  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey,  pt.  Ill,  687-742.  Washington,  1902. 

Samuel  Calvin. — The  Niobrara  chalk.  American  Geologist,  XIV,  140-161.  Minne- 
apolis, 1894. 

16D.    J.    Hale. — Marl    and    its    application    to    the    manufacture    of    Portland    cement. 

Geological  Survey  of  Michigan,  VIII,  pt.  III.      Lansing,   1900. 

H.  S.  Sprackman. — Manufacture  of  cement  from  marl  and  clay.  Proc.  Eng.  Club  of 
Philadelphia,  XX,  154-176.  Philadelphia,  1903. 

20D.    B.    Butler. — Portland    cement;    its    manufacture,    testing,    and    use.       London    and 

New   York,    1899. 
Henry    Reid. — The    science    and    art    of    the    manufacture    of    Portland    cement,    with 

observations  on  some  of  its  constructive  applications.      New  York,   1877. 
J.   C.  Branner. — On  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement.       Geol.   Survey  of  Arkansas 

for  1888,  II,  291-302. 

C.   D.  Jameson. — Portland  cement.      A  monograph.       Iowa  City,    1895. 
S.  B.  Newberry. — Portland  cement.       Seventeenth   ann.   rep.  U.   S.   Geological   Survey, 

pt.   Ill,   881-893.       Washington,    1896. 
U.    Cummings. — American   cements.       Boston,    1898. 


335 


336  LIMESTONES. 

PORTLAND  CEMENT  is  a  hydraulic  cement,  made  from  carbonate  of  lime 
(3.29  parts)  and  clay  (1  part).    "Not  over  thirty  or  forty  per  cent 
of  ordinary  Portland  cement  which  is  active  in  the  hardening  process. 
The  rest  is  inert  and  like  so  much  sand."21 
Methods  of  manufacture.22 

Sixty  per  cent  of  silica  required  in  the  clay,  magnesia  limit  from  3 
per  cent  to  5  per  cent.     Magnesia  tends  to  crumble  the  cement. 
The  cement  yield  is  about  60  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  chalk  and 
clay. 

USES    OF   PORTLAND   CEMENT. 

In  mortar,  for  cementing  building  stones,  for  paving  purposes,  and  in 

making  artificial  stone  for  building  purposes. 
Advantages   of   Portland   cement. 

Blocks  may  be  made  of  any  size  or  shape. 

It   hardens   under   water. 

It  is  stronger  and  harder  than  any  other  cement. 

Good  coment  gets  stronger  with  age. 


GYPSUM.23 

Gypsum  (CaSOt+HsO),  sulphur  trioxide  46.6,  lime  32.5,  water  20.9,  is 
a  soft  hydrous  sulphate  of  calcium,  varying  in  color — white,  red,  yel- 
low, brown,  blue,  black. 

Uses. 

In  manufacture  of  "plaster  of  Paris24  and  cement  plasters.25 

21 J.   B.   Johnson.— Proc.   Amer.   Assoc.    for  Adv.   of   Sci.,   XLVII,    244.       Salem,    1898. 

^Robert  W.    Lesley. — History   of   the    Portland   cement   industry   in   the   United    States. 
Jour.  Franklin  Inst.,   CXLVI,   324-348.      Philadelphia,   1898. 

E.  C.  Eckel. — The  materials  and  manufacture  of  Portland  cement.      Bui.  8,  Geological 

Survey  of  Alabama.      Montgomery,  1904. 

R.  L.  Humphrey  and  Wm.  Jordan,  Jr. — Portland  cement  mortars  and  their  con- 
stituent materials.  Bui.  331,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Washington,  1908. 

S.  B.  Newberry. — Portland  cement.  Twentieth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 
pt.  VI  continued,  539-546.  Washington,  1899. 

G.  P.  Grimsley. — The  Portland  cement  industry  in  California.  Engineering  and 
Mining  Journal,  LXXII,  71-72.  New  York,  1901. 

23Robert  Hay. — Geology  and   mineral   resources   of  Kansas,   46-48.       Topeka,    1893. 
Lewis  C.   Beck.— Mineralogy  of  New  York,   61-67.      Albany,   1842. 
G.  P.  Merrill.— The  nonmetallic  minerals.      Rep.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.   for  1899,  406-411. 
Washington,    1901. 

F.  A.  Wilder. — The  present  and  future  of  the  American  gypsum  industry.      Engineer- 

ing and  Mining  Journal,  LXXIV,  276-278.      New  York,  1902. 

2*P.  Wilkinson. — The  technology  of  cement  plaster  in  Kansas.      Engineering  and  Min- 
ing Journal,  LXVI,   576.      New  York,   1898. 

25G.  P.  Grimsley  and  E.  H.  S.  Bailey. — Special  report  on  gypsum  and  gypsum  cement 
plasters.  Univ.  Geol.  Survey  of  Kansas,  V.  Topeka,"  1899. 


337 


338  GYPSUM. 

As  a  fertilizer,  commonly  called  "land  plaster." 

For  delicate  statuary   (alabaster). 

In  China  it  is  used  as  a  cosmetic,  as  medicine,  and  as  an  adulterant  in 

flour. 
Varieties. 

Selenite. 

Fibrous    gypsum    or    satin    spar. 

Alabaster. 

Modes  of  Occurrence. 

Usually  dull  colored  on  account  of  impurities ;  in  beds  often  of  great 
thickness,  interstratified  with  limestones,  clays,  and  salt. 

Origin. 

Usually  deposited  from  salty  solutions  in  partly  enclosed   seas. 

Distribution. 

Gypsum  is  widespread,  geographically  as  well  as  geologically. 
Its  distribution  in  the  United  States  is  fairly  well  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing statistics.26 

VALUE  OF  GYPSUM  PRODUCED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN   1908. 

Alaska,    Colorado,    New    Mexico,    South 

Dakota,  and  Utah 

California,  Nevada,  and  Oregon 294,046 

Iowa 730,383 

Kansas    414,266 

Michigan   681,351 

New  York   800,225 

Ohio  and  Virginia 669,537 

Oklahoma  and  Texas 824,617 

Wyoming    125,033 

26G.    I.    Adams.— Gypsum   deposits    in   the    U.    S.    Bui.    223,   U.    S.    Geological    Survey. 
Washington,    1904. 

E.  F.  Burchard. — Gypsum.      Min.  Res.  U.  S.  for  1908,  pt.  II,  621-628.      Bibliography. 

Washington,    1909. 

F.  J.  H.  Merrill. — Salt  and  gypsum  industries  of  New  York.      Bui.  New  York  State 

Museum,  III,   no.   11.      Albany,   1893. 

W.   P.    Blake. — Gypsum   beds    in   southern    Arizona.       Amer.    Geologist,    XVIII,    394. 
Minneapolis,    1896. 

G.  P.   Grimsley. — The  origin  and  age   of  the   gypsum   deposits   in   Kansas.       American 

Geologist,  XVIII,  236-237.      Minneapolis,   1896. 

G.   P.    Grimsley.— Gypsum    in   Kansas.       Kansas   Univ.    Quarterly,    VI,    15-27.       1897. 

C.   R.  Keyes. — Iowa  gypsum.       Mineral  Industry,   IV,   379-388.       New  York,    1896. 

Bibliography  of  gypsum  in  the  U.   S.   Min.  Res.   U.   S.   for   1906,   1077-1078.      Wash- 
ington,  1907. 


339 


340 


GYPSUM. 


THE.  PRODUCTION 


UNITED    STATES       R- 
BY  THE  PRINCIPAL 
GYPSUM  PRODUCING 
STATES  SINCE  1889. 


NEW  YORK 
MICHIGAN 


KANSAS         HP 

r  TEXAS  AND\ 
OKLAHOMA!" 


mm 

±H-fEtEt|: 

ftfcifa 


Fig.    110. 


341 


342  KAOLIN. 


KAOLIN.1 

Kaolin  is  mostly  kaolinite  (2H2O.Al2O3.2SiO2),  a  hydrous  silicate  of 
alumina,  containing  silica  46.5,  alumina  39.5,  water  14.0.  Kaolin  always 
contains  other  substances  as  impurities.  Varieties  of  kaolin  with 
water  varying  from  7.50  per  cent  in  rectorite  to  28.8  per  cent  in  new- 
tonite. 

Uses. 

The   finest   grades   of  kaolin   are   used   for   making  fine   porcelain   and 

chinaware. 
Kaolin  from  near  St.  Yrieix,  France,  used  for  the  Limoges  and  Sevres 

porcelain. 

The  common  grades  are  used   for  cream-colored  ware,  sanitary  ware, 
and  other  ordinary  grades  of  pottery,  and  for  decorative  tiles. 

Origin. 

Kaolin  is  formed  by  decomposition  from  aluminous  minerals,  especially 

from  the  feldspars. 
Composition  of  feldspar. 
Changes  necessary  to  produce  kaolin. 
Experiments  of  Daubree  on  pulverized  feldspar. 

Occurrence. 

1.  In  irregular  beds  in   decayed  granites,  porphyries,  and  gneisses. 

Quarries  near  St.  Yrieix,  France. 

Formerly  mined  at  Brandywine  Summit,   Pa.2 
Quarrying  and  mining  methods  in  irregular  deposits. 
Original   deposits   to    be    sought  only   in   rocks   whose   decay   would 
furnish   kaolin. 

2.  In   regular   sedimentary  beds   by   removal  of  original    deposits,    and 

deposition  in  water. 
Examples   of   Arkansas   kaolins. 

Conditions  under  which  sedimentary  kaolins  may  be  formed. 
Determination  of  sedimentary  kaolin. 

JT.  C.  Hopkins. — Kaolin;  its  occurrence,  technology,  and  trade.      Mineral  Industry  for 

1898,   VII,   148-160.      New  York  and  London,    1899. 
A.    Brongiart. — Traite    cles   arts   ceramiques.       Paris,    1854. 

Bruno  Kerl. — Handbuch  der  gesammten  Thonwaarnindustrie.     Braunschweig,   1879. 
J.    C.    Branner. — A   bibliography   of   clays    and   the   ceramic   arts.      American    Ceramic 

Society.      Columbus,   O.,    1906. 

G.  P.   Merrill. — The  nonmetallic  minerals.      Rep.   U.   S.   Nat.   Museum  for   1899,  325- 
353.      Bibliography.      Washington,    1901. 

2J.    P.    Lesley. —  (On   Pennsylvania   kaolin   deposits.)      Ann.    rep.    Geological    Survey   of 
Pennsylvania   for    1885,    571-614.     Harrisburg,    1886. 


343 


344  KAOLIN 

Kaolin  may  occur  in  rocks  of  any  geologic  age,  and  in  any  part  of  the 
world  containing  the  feldspathic  rocks  capable  of  forming  it  upon 
decay  or  alteration. 

Treatment. 

Practically  no  kaolin  is  now  used  as  it  comes  from  the  ground. 
Hand  picking;   grinding;   settling;   addition  of  "flint"  or  quartz  and 

feldspar. 

Effect  of  drying  on  different  kaolins. 
Effect  of  burning. 

Loss  of  plasticity;  change  of  color  and  composition. 


CLAY.8 

Clay  is  for  the  most  part  an  impure  kaolin,  formed  originally  in  the  same 

way. 

Examples  of  differences  shown  by  analyses. 
Clays  of  organic  origin. 

Uses.4 

Manufacture  of  common  bricks,  "vitrified"  bricks  for  paving,  tiles  for 
drains  and  roofing,  terra  cotta  for  ornamental  and  architectural 
purposes,  common  pottery,  door  knobs,  chimney  pots,  sewer  pipes, 
and  playing  marbles. 

Refractory  purposes. 

Occurrence. 
Residuary  clays  from  the  decomposition  of  rocks  in  place. 

Forms  of  deposits  from  decay  along  the  outcrops  of  sedimentary  rocks. 

Forms  of  deposit  from  the  decay  of  crystalline  rocks. 
Transported  clays. 

Forms  of  the  beds. 

Cause  of  areal  changes  in  the  characters  of  the  beds. 

Why  some  beds  are  thick  and  others  thin. 

Why  some  beds  are  hard  and  others  soft. 

»R.  'T.   Hill. — Clay  materials   of   the   United    States.      Mineral   Resources   of  the   U.    S. 

for   1891,  474-528.     Washington,    1893. 

H.    Ries.— Clays:    Their    occurrence,    properties    and    uses    with    especial    reference    to 
those  of  the  U.   S.     New  York,   1906. 

4Annual    reports    of    the    National    Brick    Manufacturers'    Association.       Indianapolis, 

since    1887. 

The  Clay  Worker  (Monthly).      Indianapolis,  1884. 
C.    T.    Davis. — A    practical    treatise    on    the    manufacture    of    bricks,    tiles,    terra-cotta, 

etc.     Philadelphia,    1889. 

J.    Middleton.— Clav    products.      12th    Census    of    the    U.    S.    IX,    pt.    Ill,    901-945. 
Washington,    1902. 


345 


346  CLAY. 

The  loess  clays  of  the  Mississippi  valley. 
The  Milwaukee  brick  clays. 

Why  the  bricks  are  cream  colored.5 
Formation   of  slates,   and   clays    derived    from   them. 

Distribution. 

Clays  are  found  among  the  sedimentary  rocks  of  all  ages  and   in  all 

countries. 

The  clay  industries  of  the  United  States. 
New  Jersey  :8  Trenton  potteries. 
Ohio :   East  Liverpool  and  Cincinnati  potteries. 
Missouri :   St.  Louis  brick  industries. 
Georgia.' 

The  value  of  the  clay  products  of  the  United  States  from  1889  until 
1898  was  between  nine  and  ten  millions  of  dollars  annually;  and 
in  1907  nearly  $159,000,000  of  clay  products  were  produced. 

SE.  R.  Buckley. — The  clays  and  clay  industries  of  Wisconsin,  60-63.      Madison,   1901. 

•G.  H.  Cook  and  J.  C.  Smock. — Report  on  the  clay  deposits  of  New  Jersey.     Trenton, 
1878. 

TO.   Veatch. — Clay  deposits  of  Georgia.     Bui.    18,   Geological   Survey  of  Georgia.     At- 
lanta, 1909. 


347 


348  FULLERS'  EARTH. 


FULLERS'  EARTH.1 

Fullers'  earth  is  a  clay  in  an  extremely  finely  divided  state.  It  is  greenish 
gray,  olive  and  brown  in  color,  and  feels  greasy  when  rubbed  between 
the  fingers. 

Uses. 

It  was  first  used  by  fullers  to  take  grease  out  of  cloth,  hence  the  name. 
Cleaning  furs. 

Clarifying  cotton  seed  oil  and  petroleum. 

The  great  demand  for  fullers'  earth  for  heating  oil  in  the  United  States 
keeps  the  price  of  it  very  high. 

Occurrence. 

Geologic. 

It  occurs  as  bedded  deposits  in  sedimentary  rocks  of  any  geologic  age. 
Geographic. 
England. 

Deposits   occur  in   the   Jurassic   and   Cretaceous   beds   at   Nutfield, 
Surrey. 

Fullers'  Earth  in  the  United  States. 
Florida. 

The  deposit  is  a  bed  8  to  10  feet  thick  of  Miocene  age. 
South  Carolina  has  beds  of  fullers'  earth  in  the  Eocene. 
Georgia  and  South  Dakota  also  furnish  fullers'  earth  of  Tertiary  age. 
Arkansas. 

The  fullers'  earths  in  Arkansas  are  the  weathered  portions  of 
Tertiary  clay  beds.  They  cover  large  areas  in  the  eastern  and 
southern  parts  of  the  state. 

JJohn   T.   Porter. — Properties  and   tests   of   fullers'   earth.      Bui.    315,   U.    S.   Geological 

Survey,   268-290.     Washington,    1907. 
T.   W.    Vaughan. — Fuller's   earth    deposits   of   Georgia   and    Florida.      Bui.   213,    U.    S. 

Geological   Survey,   392-399.     Washington,    1903. 
D.  T.    Day. — The  occurrence  of  fullers'   earth   in  the   United   States.     Journal   of  the 

Franklin  Institute,   CL,  214-223.     Philadelphia,   1900. 
For    short   list    of   papers    on    fullers'    earth    see    Bui.    380,    U.    S.    Geological    Survey, 

358-360.      Washington,    1909. 


349 


350  GLASS-SAND. 


GLASS-SAND.1 

The   essential   constituent   for   manufacturing  glass  is   silica ;   it   is   found 

as  loose  sand  or  as  more  or  less  compact  sandstone. 
Purity  of  sand,  especially  freedom  from  iron  or  other  coloring  matter, 
is  necessary. 

ANALYSES    OF    GLASS-SAND. 

Constituents.                          Isle  of  Wight.  France. 

Silica   97.0  98.8 

Moisture     1.0  0.5 

Oxide  of  iron  and  magnesium 2.0  0.7 


100.0  100.0 

Distribution. 

Sand  that  may  be  used  for  making  glass  has  a  very  wide  distribution. 
England,  France,  Germany,  Austria,  Belgium,  Holland,  Sweden, 
Canada  and  Brazil  are  all  rich  in  glass-sands.  It  may  occur  in 
rocks  of  any  geologic  age. 

Glass-Sand  in  the  United  States. 
New  Jersey2  has  extensive  deposits  of  Tertiary  age. 
Pennsylvania3  from  the  Oriskany  sandstone  in  Mifflin  county. 
West  Virginia4   from   the    Oriskany   sandstone   in    Morgan   county. 
Indiana6  in   Madison,   Parke,   Clark,  and   Harrison  counties. 
Michigan  glass-sands  are  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan. 
Wisconsin:6  glass  made  from  the   St.    Peter's  and  the   Potsdam  sand- 
stone. 

JJ.  D.  Weeks.— Tenth   Census.     II,   1029-1152.     Washington,    1883. 

J.  D.  Weeks.— Glass  materials.  Mineral  Resources  of  the  U.  S.  for  1885,  544-555. 
Washington,  1886. 

S.  P.  Austin.— Glass.  12th  Census,  U.  S.,  IX,  pt.  Ill,  949-1000.  Washington,  1902. 
*G.  H.  Cook.— Geology  of  New  Jersey,  1868,  690-695,  and  293.  Newark,  1868. 

'Second  Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania,  1888-89.  Rep.  F3,  271-274,  288-292. 
Harrisburg,  1891. 

«G.  W.  Stose. — The  glass  and  industry  in  eastern  West  Virginia.  Bui.  285,  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey,  473-475.  Washington,  1906. 

"John   Collett. — Glass-sand.       Geology  and  natural   history  of  Indiana.      Twelfth  ann. 

rep.   22,   1882.     Indianapolis,    1883. 
E.    F.    Burchard. — Glass-sand   industry   of   Indiana,    Kentucky,    and   Ohio.      Bui.    315, 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  361-382.     Washington,  1907. 

•Geology  of  Wisconsin,   1873-77,  II,  290,   546,   558.       1877. 


351 


352  GLASS-SAND. 

Missouri7  at  Crystal  Springs  in  Jefferson  county. 

Iowa8    has    glass-sands    in    the    St.    Peter's    sandstone    of    the    Lower 

Silurian. 
Kentucky.5 
Ohio.5 

'Geological    Survey   of   Missouri,    1855-1871,    62,    129,    200,    273,    289,    302.      Jefferson 

City,    1873. 

Geological  Survey  of  Missouri,  1872,  289.     New  York,  1873. 
E.    F.    Burchard. — Glass-sands    of    the    Middle    Mississippi   basin.       Bui.    285,    U.    S. 

Geological   Survey,   459-472.      Washington,    1906. 

•C.   R.  Keyes. — Saint  Peter  sandstone.     Iowa  Geological  Survey.     First  ann.   rep.  for 
1892,  I,  24-25.     Des  Moines,   1893. 


353 


354  FELDSPAR. 


FELDSPAR.1 

COMPOSITION    OF    THREE    KINDS    OF    FELDSPAR. 

Orthoclase.     Albite.     Anorthite. 

Silica    64.7  68.7  43.2 

Alumina    18.4  19.5  36.7 

Potash    16.9      Soda  11.8    Lime  20.1 

Orthoclase    (KAlSisOs)    is    the    feldspar    of   commerce. 

Uses. 

Manufacture  of  pottery  and  tiles ;   used  as  a  flux,  and   for  glazing. 
The   gem  "moonstone." 

Occurrence. 

Feldspar  is  one  of  the  constituent  minerals  of  granites,  gneisses,  and 
syenites.  It  sometimes  occurs  in  segregations  in  these  rocks. 

Most  of  the  feldspar  of  the  United  States  comes  from  Connecticut,  New 
York,  and  Pennsylvania.2 

The  production  of  feldspar  in  the  United  States  in  1908  was  67,240  tons, 
worth  $400,918. 

'T.    C.   Hopkins.— Feldspar:    its   occurrence,   mining  and   uses.     The   Mineral   Industry 

for  1898,   VII,  262-268.     New  York,   1899. 
H.  Ries. — Flint  and  feldspar.     Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States  for  1901,  935- 

939.      United   States   Geological   Survey.      Washington,    1902. 
E.  S.  Bastin. — Economic  geology  of  the  feldspar  deposits  of  the  United  States.      Bui. 

420,   U.    S.    Geological   Survey.      Washington,    1910. 

!T.    C.    Hopkins. — Clays   and    feldspars    of    southern   Pennsylvania.      Mining    Bulletin, 
IV,   106-107.      Sept.,   1898. 


355 


356  MINERAL    PIGMENTS. 


MINERAL   PIGMENTS.' 

Many  pigments  are  minerals,  either  natural  or  artificial  products. 

The  more  important  minerals  used  as  pigments  are  here  brought  together 
for  convenience  of  reference. 

Antimony  is  a  constituent  of  antimony  yellow,  Naples  yellow,  and  anti- 
mony red. 

Arsenic  is  extensively  used  as  a  pigment,  especially  for  green  colors.  It 
is  a  component  of  Paris  green,  Scheele's  green,  orpiment  (King's 
yellow),  realgar,  Schweinfurth  blue. 

Barium  is  a  constituent  of  manganese  green,  certain  yellow  colors,  and 
"constant  white." 

Cadmium  is  used  in  making  various  yellows. 

Calcium  is  a  constituent  of  Venetian  red,  and  is  used  in  Spanish  white 
and  Paris  white. 

Gypsum  (calcium  sulphate)  is  used  in  making  "terra  alba." 

Chromium  is  an  important  pigment  as  a  green  and  yellow.  It  is  a 
constituent  of  chrome  yellow  (lead  chromate),  "perfect  yellow"  (zinc 
chromate),  chrome  green,  Guinet's  green,  Mittler's  green,  Veronese 
green. 

Cobalt  is  used  in  making  yellow,  blue,  and  green  pigments;  cobalt  yellow, 
cobalt  green,  Gellert's  green,  cobalt  blue,  cerulean  blue,  Leitch's  blue. 

Copper  is  extensively  used  in  making  greens  and  blues.  It  is  a  constituent 
of  Bremen  green,  Brunswick  green,  Casselmann's  green,  Eisner's 
green,  Paris  green,  Gentele's  green,  "mineral  greens,"  Scheele's  green, 
Alexandria  blue,  Bremen  blue,  and  Schweinfurth  blue. 

Graphite  paint  is  used  for  metal  exposed  to  the  weather. 

'H.   H.   Harrington  and  P.   S.   Tilson. — Paints  and  painting  material.      Bui.    44,   Texas 

Agr.   Exp.   Sta.     Austin,    1898. 

Spons'   encyclopedia   of,  arts   and   manufactures,    II,    1548-1556.      London,    1882. 
Blount     and     Bloxam. — The     chemistry     of     manufacturing     processes,     XV,     449-467. 

Philadelphia,   1897. 
Thomas  B.   Stillman. — Paint  analysis.     The  digest  of  physical  tests,   1897,  II,    114-127. 

(Bibliography.) 
E.  VV.  Parker. — Mineral   paints.       Sixteenth   aim.   rep.   U.   S.   Geological   Survey,    1894. 

1895,  pt.   IV,   694-702.      Washington,    1895. 

Robert  Hay. — Trans.   Kansas  Acad.   Sci.,    1893-94,   XIV,  243.      Topeka,    1896. 
E.   W.   Parker. — Mineral   paints.     Twentieth   aim.    rep.    U.    S.    Geological    Survey,   pt. 

VI    (continued),   719-737.      Washington,    1899. 
E.  J.  Parry  and  J.  H.  Coste. — The  chemistry  of  pigments.      London,   1902. 


357 


358  MINERAL   PIGMENTS. 

Iron'  is  a  constituent  of  the  ochres,  of  Prussian  green,  Alexandria  blue, 
Antwerp  blue,  Chinese  blue,  Leitch's  blue,  Prussian  blue,  Indian  red, 
Venetian  red,  sienna,  and  umber. 

Lead3  is  a  constituent  of  chrome  yellow,  Naples  yellow,  and  red  lead. 
White  lead  is  lead  carbonate  or  sulphate. 

Magnesium  is  used  in  making  Indian  yellow. 

Manganese  is  a  constituent  of  manganese  green,  sienna,  and  umber. 

Potassium  is  a  constituent  of  cobalt  yellow,  Casselmann's  green,  Schwein- 
furth  blue. 

Tin  is  a  constituent  of  cerulean  blue. 

Ultramarine  is  a  combination  of  silica,  alumina,  sulphuric  acid,  soda,  iron, 
sulphur,  and  magnesia. 

Vanadium*  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  analine  black,  for  coloring  porce- 
lain, and  in  metallurgy. 

Whiting  is  pure  chalk. 

Zinc  is  used  in  "perfect  yellow,"  cobalt  green,  Gellert's  green,  methyl  green, 
and  zinc  white'. 

=Ochre  and  oxide  of  iron  pigments.  The  mineral  industry,  VII,  532-536.  New 
York,  1899. 

F.  A.    Hill. — Report    on    metallic    paint    ores    along    the    Lehigh    River.      Geological 

Survey  of  Pennsylvania  for  1886,  pt.  IV,   1386-1408.     Harrisburg,   1887. 

C.  E.    Hesse.- — The   paint-ore   mines    of   the   Lehigh    gap.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 

Eng.,   XIX,   321-330.     New   York,    1891. 

*G.  W.  Thompson. — Relative  values  of  lead  and  zinc.  Engineering  and  Mining 
Journal,  LXXVI,  398-399.  New  York,  1903. 

G.  S.  Fraps. — Composition  of  white  lead  and  paints.     Bui.   14,  Texas  Agr.  Exp.   Sta. 

Austin,    1908. 

«G.    J.    Rockwell. — Index    to    literature    of   vanadium,    1801-1877.      Annals    New    York 

Academy  of  Sciences,  I,   133-143.     New  York,   1879. 

J.  Kent  Smith. — The  present  source  and  uses  of  vanadium.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst. 
Min.  Eng.,  XXXVIII,  698-703.  New  York,  1908. 

D.  Foster   Hewett. — Vanadium-deposits   of   Peru.      Bui.    27,   Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng., 

291-316.     New  York,  1909;  XL,  274-299.     New  York,   1910. 

Discussion  by  J.   F.   Kemp.     ibid.   XL,   861-863.     New   York,   1910. 

W.  F.  Hillebrand  and  F.  L.  Ransome.— On  carnotite  and  associated  vanadiferous 
minerals  in  western  Colorado.  Bui.  262,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  9-31.  Wash- 
ington, 1905. 


3-39 


360 


ASPHALT.1 

Varieties   of   asphalt    are   known    also   as      grahamite,   gilsonite,   uintaite, 

albertite,  wurtzilite,  elaterite,  etc.     It  is  from  brown  to  black  in  color, 
brittle  to  a  blow,  and  melts  at  200°   F.  and  lower. 

Uses. 

Its  principal  use  is  street  paving. 

In   architecture ;    lining   reservoirs ;    foundations    for    heavy   machinery ; 

coating  for  pipes,  piles,  fence  posts,  paving  blocks,  wire  poles;  as 

an    insulator. 
It    is    also    used    in    different    mixtures    as    a    waterproof   material    for 

metals,  papers,  fabrics,  and  roofing. 

Origin.2 

Asphalt  or  asphaltum  is  a  residue  or  base  resulting  from  distillation  of 

petroleum  or  other  organic  accumulations. 
Evidences  to  support  this  theory.3 

Occurrence.4 

It  occurs  in  beds  and  veins  mixed  with  more  or  less  earthy  matter  or 

impregnating  limestone  or  sandstone. 
The  most  important  asphalt  deposit  known  is  on  the  island  of  Trinidad 

off  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  where  it  occurs  at  the  surface  like  a  lake 

and  covers  an  area  of  116  acres.5     This  deposit  is  remarkable  for 

its  purity. 

]W.  C.  Day. — The '  production  of  an  asphalt  resembling  gilsonite  by  the  distillation 
of  a  mixture  of  fish  and  wood.  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  XXXVII,  171-174. 
Philadelphia,  1898. 

W.  C.  Day. — The  laboratory  production  of  asphalts  from  animal  and  vegetable  ma- 
terials. Jour.  Franklin  Inst.,  CXLVIII,  205-226.  Philadelphia,  1899. 

I.  C.  White. — Origin  of  grahamite.  Bui.  Geol.  Soc.  Amer.,  X,  277-284.  Rochester, 
1899. 

H.  Wurtz. — A  theory  of  asphalto-genesis. — Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  XLVIII, 
73-74.  New  York,  1889. 

F.  V.  Greene.— Asphalt  and  its  uses.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XVII,  355-375. 
New  York,  1889. 

E.  W.  Parker. — Asphaltum  and  bituminous  rock.  Twentieth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geo- 
logical Survey,  pt.  VI  (continued),  251-268.  Washington,  1899. 

*S.  F.  Peckham. — The  genesis  of  bitumens,  as  related  to  chemical  geology.  Proc. 
Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  XXXVII,  108-139.  Philadelphia,  1898. 

*W.  C.  Morgan  and  M.  C.  Tallmon. — A  fossil  egg  from  Arizona.  University  of 
California  publications,  Bui.  Dept.  Geol.,  Ill,  no.  19,  403-410.  Berkeley,  1904. 

4G.  H.  Eldridge. — The  formation  of  asphalt  veins.  Economic  Geology,  I,  437-444. 
1906. 

•S.  F.  Peckham  and  Laura  A.  Linton.— On  Trinidad  pitch.  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  CLI, 
193-207.  New  Haven,  1896. 


361 


362 


ASPHALT. 


Minor  deposits  of  asphalt  also  occur  in  the  islands  of  Barbados,'  and 
Cuba.1 

Deposits  in  the  United  States.' 

California:1 

The  most  important  asphalt  deposits  in  the  United  States  are  in  the 

Tertiary  rocks  of  California. 

In  Kern  county  it  occurs  in  veins  and  superficial  beds. 
In  Santa  Cruz  county  bituminous  beds  are  quarried  about  seven  miles 

northwest  of  the  city  of  Santa  Cruz. 
In  San  Luis  Obispo  county  asphalt  occurs  in  superficial  deposits  from 

oil  springs. 
In    Santa    Barbara    county    liquid    asphalt    and    asphalt    mixed    with 

sand  and  other  substances  are  found  in  veins  and  beds  and  in 

sandstones  and  shales. 


Fig.    111. — Section  near  La  Brea  creek,   Santa  Barbara  county,  California,  showing  the 
geological  structure  and  the  accumulation  of  bitumen.    (Cooper.) 

In  Ventura  county  it  occurs  in  irregular  veins,  and  impregnating  sand- 
stone. 

The  output  of  California  increased  from  $598,502  worth  in  1897,  to 
$1,347,257  in  1908. 


•W.  Merrivale.— Barbadoes  manjak.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXVI,  790-791. 
New  York,  1898. 

*H.  E.  Peckham. — On  the  bituminous  deposits  situated  at  the  south  and  east  of 
Cardenas,  Cuba.  Amer.  Jour.  Sci.,  CLXII,  33-41.  New  Haven,  1901. 

«G.  H.  Eldridge. — The  asphalt  and  bituminous  rock  deposits  of  the  United  States. 
Twenty-second  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  I,  209-452.  Washington, 
1901. 

*W.  L.  Watts. — The  gas  and  petroleum  yielding  formations  of  the  central  valley  of 
California.  California  State  Mining  Bureau,  Bui.  no.  3.  Sacramento,  1894. 

A.  S.  Cooper.— The  genesis  of  petroleum  and  asphaltum  in  California.  California 
Mines  and  Minerals,  114-174.  San  Francisco,  1899.  Same  in  Bui.  16,  Cali- 
fornia State  Mining  Bureau.  Sacramento,  1899. 

S  F.  Peckham. — The  technology  of  California  bitumens.  Jour.  Franklin  Inst., 
CXLVI,  45-54.  Philadelphia,  1898. 


363 


364  ASPHALT. 

Other  states. 

The  only  other  states  that  have  produced  asphalt  in  commercial  quan- 
tities are  Kentucky,10  Texas,  "  Oklahoma,  12  Colorado,13  and  Utah." 
In  Utah   it  is  known  as  gilsonite  or  uintaite. 

10W.  E.  Burk.— Asphalt  rock  in  Kentucky.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXXV, 
969-970.  New  York,  1903. 

"Coal,    lignite,    and    asphalt    rocks.        Bui.     3,     Univ.     Texas    Min.     Survey.        Austin, 

12W.  R.  Crane. — Asphalt  in  the  Indian  Territory.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal, 
LXXX,  442-443.  New  York,  1905. 

"J.  S.  Newberry.— Grahamite  in  Colorado.  School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  VIII,  332-337. 
New  York,  1887. 

"G.  H.  Eldridge.— The  uintaite  deposits  of  Utah.  Seventeenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geo- 
logical Survey,  pt.  I,  915-949.  Washington,  1896. 

Asphaltum    mineral    resources,    1893,    627-669.      Washington,    1894. 

W.  P.  Blake. — Uintaite,  albertite,  grahamite,  and  asphaltum.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst. 
Min.  Eng.,  XVIII,  563-582.  New  York,  1890. 


365 


366 


ASPHALT. 


ASPHALT 

THE  PRODUCTION  AND 
IMPORTS    OF    ASPHALT 
INTO  THE  UNITED    STATES 
SINCE    I88O. 


Fig.    112. 


367 


368  ROAD  MATERIALS. 


ROAD  MATERIALS.1 

Reference   is  here  made  only  to  road  metal  or  top-dressing  for  common 

macadam  or  telford  roads. 
The  essential  qualities  of  good   road  metal  are :   that   it   pack  hard   and 

smooth ;   that   it   resist   the    wear   of  traffic  and  of  weather ;   that    it 

produce  as  little  dust  and  mud  as  possible. 
Importance  of  toughness  as  against  hardness  and  brittleness. 

INFERIOR    MATERIALS.2 

Materials  that  fail  to  meet  the  requirements  mentioned  above  are  more 

or   less  objectionable. 
Feldspathic   rocks   on    decay,   or   when   powdered,    form   kaolin,   a   very 

sticky  mud  when  wet  and  a  fine  dust  when  dry. 
Syenite    (80  per  cent  feldspar),  granite,  gneiss. 
Clay  shale  composed  of  clay ;  when  crushed  makes  mud  or  dust. 
Limestone   is  too   soft,   for  though   much  used,  it   is   easily  ground   to 

mud  or  dust. 

Clean  sandstone  has  'no  binding  and  is  too  loose. 
Clean  hard  pebbles   from  streams  if  without  binding  material  do  not 

pack  readily. 

SUPERIOR   MATERIALS. 

Gravels  of  hard  rock  with  binding  materials. 

Paducah,  Ky.,  gravels  cemented  by  iron. 
Sandy  shales. 

Mauch  Chunk  red  shales  of  Pennsylvania  with  iron  cement. 
Chert  gravel,  natural  or  artificial,  containing  some  lime  or  iron. 

Good  roads  of  the  chert  region  of  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Tennessee. 

JN.  S.  Shaler. — Geology  of  the  road-building  stones  of  Massachusetts,  etc.  Sixteenth 
aim.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  II,  277-341.  Washington,  1895. 

E.   Dietrich. — Die   Baumaterialien  der  Steinstrassen.      Berlin,    1885. 

Bulletins  of  the  Office  of  Road  Inquiry.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  Washington, 
D.  C. 

N.  S.  Shaler.— The  common  roads.     Scribner's  Magazine.  VI,   473-483.     October,   1889. 

E.  G.     Love. — Pavements    and     roads:      their    construction    and     maintenance.       New 

York,    1890. 

F.  J.  H.  Merrill.— Road  materials  and  road  building  in  New  York.     Bui.  N.  Y.   State 

Museum,   IV,   no.    17.     Albany,    1897. 

J.   O.   Baker. — A   treatise  on  roads  and  pavements.      New  York,    1903. 
T.   W.    Smith. — Dustless   roads.      London,    1909. 
W    H    Fulweiler. — The   development   of  modern   road   surfaces.      Tour.    Franklin    Inst., 

CLXVIII,    155-183.      Philadelphia,    1909. 

SN.  S.  Shaler. — Rocks  suitable  for  road-making.     Stone,  XIII,  571-572.     Chicago,   1896. 


369 


370  ROAD  MATERIALS. 

How  the  gravels  accumulate  in  streams. 

Necessity  of  screening  them. 

Influence  of  the  lime  in  hardening. 
Novaculite  and  jasper  gravels. 

Breaking  up  of  novaculite  by  joints. 

Accumulation  in  stream  channels. 

The  jasper  beds  of  California,  Wisconsin,  and  North  Carolina. 
Hardening  road  metal. 

Influence  of  iron,  illustrated  by  the  canga  of  Brazil,  and  the  iron- 
bearing  gravels  of  Paducah,  Ky. ;  influence  of  lime. 

Possibility  of  improving  poor  materials  with  iron. 

Distribution  of  Materials. 
Gravels   in  the  glaciated  areas. 
Modern  gravels  in  stream  channels;  dredged  from  the  Ohio  at  Evans- 

ville. 

Sandy  shales  with  other  sedimentary  rocks. 
Chert  gravels  of  Lower  Carboniferous  and  Silurian  ages. 
Novaculites  of  Arkansas  follow  structural  features. 
Where  iron  may  be  had  for  hardening. 
Poor  iron  ores  available. 


371 


372  REFRACTORY   MATERIALS. 

REFRACTORY    MATERIALS.1 

Refractory  materials  are  substances  of  various  compositions,  capable 
of  withstanding  high  temperature  without  fusing. 

Uses. 

They  are  used  for  lining,  furnaces,  stoves,  and  chimney  backs,  and 
making  crucibles,  hearths,  retorts,  and  the  like  used  in  metal- 
lurgical works.  Clay  of  low  refractoriness  is  used  for  making 
sewer  pipes  and  "vitrified"  paving  bricks. 

Composition. 

(Some  infusible  substances  are  not  mentioned  here  because  they  are 

not  practically  available.) 

Refractory  materials  vary  greatly  in  composition. 
Aluminous:  fire-clay,  bauxite,  kaolin,  mica. 
Magnesian:   asbestos,  magnesite,  talc. 
Carbonaceous:    graphite. 
Calcareous:  pure  lime. 
Siliceous:  pure  quartz  of  Dinas  bricks.2 

Canister :    ground   quartz   and   fire-clay    used    in   lining   Bessemer   con- 
verters. 

Chromium:   chromite   is   used  as   refractory  material. 
The  refractoriness  of  most  substances  depends  upon  their  purity. 
Pure  lime  highly  refractory  alone,  but  it  is  a  flux  with  certain  other  sub- 
stances. 

Magnesia  is  refractory  alone,  but  it  is  a  flux  in  combination. 
Pure  silicia  used  for  Dinas  bricks  lowers  the  refractoriness  of  cer- 
tain other  substances. 


FIRE    CLAY.3 

Clays  and  kaolins  are  hydrous  silicates  of  alumina.      Fire-clays  proper 

are  simply  clays  that  do  not  fuse  readily. 
Fire  clays  may  occur  with  sedimentary  rocks  of  any  age. 

'John   Percy. — Metallurgy.       Refractory  materials:   crucibles,   furnaces,    fire-bricks,   etc., 

87-154.       London,    1875. 

A.   Humboldt  Sexton. — Fuel  and  refractory  materials.       London,    1896. 
R.    L.    Humphrey. — The   fire-resisting   properties   of   various   building   materials.       Bui. 

370,    U.    S.    Geological    Survey.       Washington,    1909. 

2W.  A.  Shenstone.— Vitrified  quartz.      Nature,  LXIV,  65-67.      London,   1901. 

3H.  O.  Hofman  and  C.  D.  Demond. — Some  experiments  for  determining  the  refrac- 
toriness of  fire-clays.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXIV,  42-66.  New 
York,  1895. 

Carl   Bischof. — Die   Feuerfesten  Thone.       Leipzig.    1876. 

T  C.  Hopkins. — A  short  discussion  of  the  origin  of  the  coal  measures  fire  clays. 
American  Geologist,  XXVIII,  47-51.  Minneapolis,  1901. 


373 


374  REFRACTORY    MATERIALS. 

They  have  been  deposited  in   ponds   or  marshes   or   in  very  quiet 

waters. 

Why  they  are  so  abundant  in  the  Carboniferous. 
Their  structural   features  are   due  to  the  conditions   of   deposition. 
Varying  degrees  of  refractoriness. 
Refractoriness  determined  by  composition  and  physical  condition. 

FLUXING  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  COMMON   CONSTITUENTS  OF  CLAYS  ON   A  SILICATE 
OF    ALUMINA    AS    DETERMINED    BY    BISCHOF. 

!20  of  magnesia. 
28  of  lime. 
31  of  soda. 
40  of  iron  oxide. 
47  of  potash, 
formula,  based  on  chemical  composition,  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

Refractoriness=  (A1*0")'  X0.2759 
MXSiO2 

[M=(0.6  X  Fe2O3)  +  (0.857  X  CaO)  +  (12  X  MgO) 
+  (O.S092  X  K2O)  +  (0.7729  X  Na,O).] 

According  to  this  formula  fire-clay  of  Cheltenham,  Mo.,  has  refrac- 
toriness of  0.86;  best  Stourbridge  clay,  1.28;  clay  for  vitrified  brick, 
0.24  to  0.34. 

Wherein  analyses  of  clays  may  not  be  trusted. 

The  refractoriness  of  a  single  clay  varies  with  physical  condition. 

Use  of  "grog,"  or  "chamotte"  to  reduce  the  shrinkage. 

The  refractoriness  of  aluminous  clays  may  be  greatly  increased  by  the 
use  of  bauxite. 

Paving-bricks  are  made  of  fire-clay  of  low  refractoriness. 

How   to   increase   or  decrease   refractoriness. 


MAGNESITE.4 

(Carbonate   of  magnesia    (Mg   CO3) :   magnesia   47.6;   carbon    dioxide 
52.4. 

Uses. 

Used  as  linings  in  basic  hearths  of  steel  furnaces  and  for  fireproofing 
buildings. 

'Henry    G.    Hanks. — A    history    of    magnesia,    and    its    base    and    compounds.        San 

Francisco,    1895. 
Magnesite     in     India.        Engineering    and     Mining    Journal,     LXVI,     669-670.        New 

York,    1898. 
S.    J.    Vlasto. — The    magnesite    industry.      Engineering    and    Mining    Journal,    LXIX, 

288-9.       New    York,    1900. 


375 


376  REFRACTORY   MATERIALS 

It  is  also  used  for: 

Bleaching  agent  and  filler  in  making  wood-pulp  paper. 
Manufacture  of  magnesium  salts. 

Manufacture  of  carbonic  acid  for  artificial  mineral  waters. 
Manufacture  of  metallic  magnesium. 

Occurrence  and  Distribution. 

Associated  with  serpentines,  talcose  schists,  and  other  magnesian  rocks, 
in  thin  veins  and  stringers. 

Mined  near  Veitsch,  Austria,  and  made  into  fire-brick, 

At  Bolton,  Canada,5  the  deposit  is  said  to  be  60'  thick. 

In  Silesia,  Germany,  there  are  deposits  at  Grochau  and  Baumgarten. 

In  Greece6  it  forms  veins  in  serpentines. 

In  the  United  States  it  is  associated  with  serpentine  beds  on  Staten 
Island  in  New  York.  In  California  it  is  found  in  Fresno,  Alameda, 
Napa,  Santa  Clara,  San  Mateo,  and  other  counties.  It  can  probably 
be  found  as  white  veins  in  serpentine  wherever  the  latter  occurs. 
It  is  worked  in  California.* 

The  California  output  in  1906  was  7,805  tons,  worth  $23,415;  in  1908, 
6,587  tons,  worth  $19,761. 


CHRYSOTILE   (ASBESTOS).8 

Commercial  "asbestos"  is  chrysotile  (rLMgaSizOg),  a  fibrous  variety 
of  serpentine:  silica  44.1,  magnesia  43.0,  water  12.9;  another  kind 
is  a  fibrous  variety  of  amphibole. 

Uses. 

It  is  used  for  steam  packing;  covering  for  boilers,  steam  pipes,  and 
hot-water  pipes;  fireproofing  for  buildings  and  safes;  lining  for  gas 
stoves  and  fireplaces;  for  the  manufacture  of  fireproof  cloths  and 
theatre  curtains;  and  for  weighting  silks. 

»G.   C.   Hoffman. — Magnesite.      Ann.   rep.   Geological   Survey  of  Canada,   XIII,   R,   for 
1900,    14-19.      Ottawa,    1903. 

°F.    Meijnan. — The   magnesite    industry   of   Greece.      Engineering   and    Mining   Journal, 
LXXXVI,  962.     New   York,    1908. 

F.  Meijnan.— Grecian  magnesite.     Eng.   and   Min.  Jour.,  LXXXVI,  730.     New  York, 

1908. 

7F.   L.  Hess. — The  magnesite   deposits  of  California.     Bui.   355,  U.   S.   Geological   Sur- 
vey.     Washington,    1908. 

8R.    W.    Ells. — The    mining    industries    of   eastern    Quebec.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 
Eng.,    XVIII,    320-328.      New    York,    1890. 

G.  P.    Merrill. — Notes   on    asbestos    and   asbestiform    minerals.      Proc.    U.    S.    National 

Museum,    1895,    XVIII,   281-292.      Washington,    1896. 
R.  H.   Jones. — Asbestos  and  asbestic;   their   properties  and   occurrence.     London,    1897. 


377 


378  REFRACTORY    MATERIALS. 

Occurrence  and  Distribution. 

Tt  occurs  in  narrow  veins  in  serpentine  rocks;9  the  veins  but  feu- 
inches  wide;  the  fibers  cross  the  veins. 

Nearly  all  the  asbestos  used  in  the  United  States  comes  from  Quebec,10 
Canada,  which  produces  58%  of  the  world's  supply. 

ASBESTOS   IN   THE  UNITED   STATES." 

Asbestos  occurs  at  and  about  Sail  Mountain  in  Georgia  as  a  fiberized 
variety  of  amphibolite.  This  is  the  principal  deposit  in  the 
United  States.  Minor  deposits  occur  in  Virginia,  Vermont,  Texas, 
Wyoming,12  Arizona,  and  California. 

Asbestos  in  the  Philippines.13 

VALUES    OF    THE    ASBESTOS     PRODUCED    AND    IMPORTED    INTO    THE 
UNITED    STATES. 

Produced  Imported 

1880  ?  $   9,736 

1890  $  4,560  257,899 

1895  13,525  244,878 

1900  16,310  355,951 

1904  25,740  751,862 

1907  11,899  1,316,379 

1908  19,624  1,195,870 

'G.    P.    Merrill. — On   the   origin    of   veins   in    asbestiform    serpentine.      Bui.    Geol.    Soc. 
Amer.,   XVI,    131-136.      Rochester,    1905. 

"J.    A.    Dresser. — On    the    asbestos    deposits    of    the    eastern    townships    of    Quebec. 
Economic   Geology,    IV,    130-140.      March,    1909. 

"J.    S.   Diller. — Asbestos.     Mineral   Resources   for   1907,   pt.   II,   711-722.      Washington, 
1908. 

"H.    C.    Beeler. — Asbestos  in  Wyoming.      Engineering  and   Mining  Journal,    XC,    955. 
New  York,   1910. 

isW.  D.   Smith. — The  asbestos  and  manganese  deposits  of  Ilocos  Norte   (P.   I.).    Phil. 
Jour.    Sci.,    II,    145-177.      Manila,    1907. 


379 


380  REFRACTORY    MATERIALS. 

TALC.14 

Talc  (HzMgaSuOia),  is  also  known  as  soapstone  and  steatite;  its 
theoretic  composition  when  pure  is:  silica  63.5,  magnesia  31.7, 
water  4.8. 

It  is  used   for   cooking  utensils,  heating  stoves,  furnace   linings,   for 
fire-proof   paints,    and    adulterating    soap.       Fibrous    talc    is    used 
for  weighting  paper,  in  paints,  and  for  making  wall  plasters. 
It  is  also  used  as  a  lubricant,  in  polishing  glass,  in  preparing  toilet 

powders,  and  as  a  dressing  on  skins,  felts,  etc. 
It  occurs  in  large  beds,  usually  in  regions  of  metamorphic  rocks. 
St.  Lawrence  county  in  N.  Y.  is  the  principal  producer  of  talc. 
It  is  mined  at  Talcville  in  400'  shafts,  the  vein  being  18-20'  wide 
with  granite  walls.      The  output  of   fibrous  talc  in  the  state 
of  New  York  in  1908  was  70,739  tons,  valued  at  $697,390. 

PRODUCTION  OF  TALC  IN  THE  UNITED   STATES   IN    1908. 

Tons 

New    York 70,739 $697,390 

Virginia    19,616 458,252 

Vermont    10,755 99,743 

New  Jersey  and  Pennsyl- 
vania      4,648 29,118 

North    Carolina 3,564 51,443 

Other   states 8,032 65,276 


117,354         $1,401,222 


GRAPHITE. 

Theoretically  graphite  is  pure  carbon,  but  analyses  of  a  large  number 
of  samples  show  it  to  contain  at  most  from  80  to  99%  carbon. 

As  a  refractory  material  it  is  used  for  making  crucibles.  It  is  shaped 
by  being  mixed  with  clay  and  turned  on  a  wheel  like  pottery. 

"C.   H.   Smyth,  Jr. — The   genesis  of  the  talc  deposits  of  St.   Lawrence  county,  N.   Y. 

School  of    Mines   Quarterly,    XVII,    333-341.      July,    1896. 
C.  A.  Waldo. — Talc  and  soapstone.     The  Mineral  Industry,   1893,   II,   603-606.     New 

York,    1894. 
C.  H.   Smyth,  Jr. — Report  on  the  talc  industry  of  St.   Lawrence  county.     49th  ann. 

rep.    of    the    Regents,    New    York    State    Museum,    for    1895,    Vol.    II,    661-671. 

Albany,    1898. 
G.  P.  Merrill. — The  nonmetallic  minerals.      Ann.  rep.   for  1899,  U.  S.   Nat.  Museum, 

296-307.     Washington,   1901.     (Bibliography.) 


381 


382  REFRACTORY    MATERIALS. 

LIME. 

(See  geology  of  lime  at  pages  322,  328.) 

Lime  alone  "is  one  of  the  most  refractory  substances  known,  and  no 
temperature  has  as  yet  been  attained  which  has  caused  it  to  ex- 
hibit the  slightest  indication  of  fusion." — Percy,  134. 
Crucibles  made  of  unslaked  lime  are  made  by  sawing  the  lumps  into 
blocks  and  boring  cavities  in  the  center. 

SILICA. 

The  Dinas  fire-bricks  are  made  of  quartz-sand  (96.73 — 98.31%  pure 
silicia)  from  the  Millstone  Grit,  in  the  Vale  of  Neath,  near  Swan- 
sea, Wales.  They  expand  on  being  heated;  fire-clay  bricks  con- 
tract when  heated.  Silica  bricks  cannot  be  used  where  the  slag 
contains  metallic  oxides. 

Any  pure  quartz  may  be  used  to  manufacture  silica  bricks.  Fire-clay 
is  used  to  hold  the  sand  together.  Styrian  silica  bricks. 

Availability  of  novaculites. 

Occurrence  and  distribution  of  novaculites. 

CHROME  IRON.15 

Chrome    iron    has    lately   come    into    use    for    furnace    linings.       It    is 

crushed,  washed,  and  made  into  bricks  for  this  purpose. 
(For  the  geology  and  references  on  this  subject,  see  under  Chro- 
mium, pages  206-208. 

MICA.16 
Uses. 

The  large  sheets  of  mica  are  used  for  stove  and  furnace  doors,  and 
lamp  chimneys;  covers  for  the  eyes  of  persons  working  at  certain 
trades  and  using  motor  cars. 

15W.    Glenn. — Chromite   as   a   hearth-lining    for   a    furnace   smelting   copper-ore.     Trans. 
Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XXXI,   374-379.      New    York,    1902. 

I6J.    A.    Holmes. — Geology    of   the    mica    deposits    of    the    United    States.      Engineering 

and   Mining  Journal,   LXVII,    174.      New   York,    1899. 
N.    S.    Shaler.— Mica   mines   of   New    England.     Tenth   Census,    XV,    833-836.      1880. 

C.  Hanford   Henderson. — Mica   and   the  mica   mines.      Pop.    Sci.    Monthly,    XLI,    652- 

665.      New    York,    1892. 
J.  A.  Holmes.— Mica  deposits  of  the  United   States.     20th   ann.   rep.  U.   S.  Geological 

Survey,    pt.    VI    continued,    691-707.      Washington,    1899. 
G.  P.   Merrill.— The  nonmetallic  minerals.      Rep.   U.   S.   Nat.   Mus.,   for   1899,   283-296. 

Washington,     1901. 

D.  B.   Sterrett. — Mica.     Mineral  Resources  of  the  U.   S.  for   1906,    1149-1163.    Wash- 

ington,   1907.      For    1908,   pt.    II,    743-754.      Washington,    1909. 

G.    W.    Colles.— Mica   and   the   mica   industry.      Jour.    Franklin.    Inst.,    CLX,    191-210, 
275-295,    327-368.      CLXI,    43-58,    81-100.      Philadelphia,    1906. 


383 


384  REFRACTORY    MATERIALS. 

Scrap  mica  is  ground  up  and  used  for  boiler-covering,  insulating  and 
fireproofing,  and  for  a  lubricant;  also  for  an  absorbent  of  nitro- 
glycerin,  in  wall-paper,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  bronze  powder, 
spangles  on  Christmas  trees,  and  tinsel. 

Composition  and  Character. 

The  mica  of  commerce  is  chiefly  Muscovite   (  (H,K)    AlSid),  and  has 
the    following   theoretical    composition:    silica   45.2,   alumina   38.S, 
potash  11.8,  water  4.5%. 
Its  transparency  and  flexibility. 

Biotite  is  a  black  mica  containing  Mg,  Fe,  Al,  K  and  silica,  but  seldom 
occurs  in  crystals  large  enough  for  commercial  use. 

Occurrence. 

Mica  of  commercial  importance  occurs  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains 
in  New  Hampshire,  Virginia,  and  North  Carolina;"  in  the  Black 
Hills  of  South  Dakota,18  in  northern  New  Mexico  and  western 
Idaho. 

It  is  found  in  pegmatite  dikes  in  Archean  gneisses  and  granites,  gener- 
ally cutting  across  the  schistosity  of  the   rocks. 
The  "books"  or  crystals  are  scattered  through  the  mass,  though  they 

are  sometimes  near  the  walls. 
Usually  there  is  less  than  1%  of  mica  in  the  rock;  sometimes  as  high 

as   10%. 

Of  the  mined  mica  only  from  1  to  10%  is  valuable  as  sheet  mica. 
The  mica  imported  into  this  country  comes  chiefly  from  Great  Brit- 
ain, Canada,19  and  the  East  Indies. 

During  1908  the  average  price  of  mica  in  New  York  was  24.1  cents 
per  pound.  For  selected  sizes  the  prices  were  as  follows: 

Per  pound 

2X2  inches $  .87 

3X3   inches 2.75 

4X6   inches 4.75 

4X8   inches 6.75 

"W.   C.   Kerr. — The  mica   veins   of   North   Carolina.      Trans.   Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng., 
VIII,    457-462.      Easton,   Pa.,    1880. 

"D.  B.  Sterrett.— Mica  deposits  of  South  Dakota.     Bui.  380,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 
382-397.      Washington,    1909. 

"E.    T.    Corkill. — Notes    on    the    occurrences,    production    and    uses    of    mica      Jour. 
Can.    Min.    Inst.,    VII,   284-307.     Toronto,    1905. 


385 


386  REFRACTORY   MATERIALS. 

VALUE   OF    MICA    PRODUCED    AND    IMPORTED    INTO    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Year  Production  Imports 

1880  $127,825 $     12,562 

1890  75,000 207,375 

1900  147,960 275,984 

1902  118,849 466,332 

1904  120,316 263,714 

1906  274,990 1,042,608 

1908  267,925 266,058 


387 


388  ABRASIVES. 


ABRASIVES.1 

DIAMOND  DUST. 

(See  under  diamonds  at  page  456.) 

CORUNDUM.2 

Corundum  for  abrasive  purposes;  forms  not  available  for  precious 
stones. 

Uses. 

Powdered  corundum  is  used  as  a  polishing  powder. 
Emery,  an  impure  variety  containing  iron,  is  used  as  a  polishing  pow- 
der and  in  making  emery  wheels. 

Occurrence. 

Corundum  occurs  in  crystalline  limestones  and  metamorphic  rocks 
such  as  gneiss,  schists,  slates,  etc.  It  occurs  at  various  places  in 
the  Appalachian  Mountain  regions.  Emery  is  mined  at  Chester, 
Mass.,  and  corundum  is  mined  at  Laurel  Creek,  Georgia,  at  Corun- 
dum Hill,  N.  C.,3  and  at  Salida,  Colorado,  where  it  occurs  in  a 
quartz  vein  in  gneiss. 

In  1898,  4,064  tons  of  corundum  and  emery  were  produced  in  the 
United  States,  valued  at  about  $275,064.  Since  then  the  output  has 
declined  until  in  1908  it  was  only  669  tons,  worth  $8,745. 

The  imports  of  emery  in  the  United  States  in  1908  were  valued  at 
$248,399,  which  was  less  than  half  of  the  value  of  the  imports 
for  1906. 

Corundum  was  discovered  in  Canada  in  1896.4  The  Canadian  produc- 
duction  in  the  year  1906  was  valued  at  $204,973. 

'Abrasives.      Mineral    Industry,    VI,    11-26. 

2Francis    P.     King. — A    preliminary    report    on     the     corundum    deposits     of     Georgia. 

Georgia   Geological   Survey,   Bui.    2.     Atlanta,    1894. 
J.    V.    Lewis. — Corundum    of    the    Appalachian    crystalline    belt.      Trans.    Amer.    Min. 

Inst.  Eng.,   XXV,   852-906.     New  York,    1896.      (Bibliography.) 
Corundum   and   emery.      Mineral   Industry,    VII,    15-21. 
A.   Blue. — Corundum   in  Ontario.     Trans.   Amer.   Inst.   Min.    Eng.,   XXVIII,   565-578. 

New    York,    1899. 
J.    H.    Pratt. — On    the    origin    of    the    corundum    associated    with    the    peridotites    of 

North   Carolina.      Amer.    Jour.    Sci.,    CLVI,    49-65.      New   Haven,    1898. 
A.    M.     Stone. — Corundum    mining    in    North    Carolina.      Engineering    and    Mining 

Journal,   LXV,   490.     New  York,    1898. 

Corundum    and   its   uses.      Nature,    LIX,    558-559.      London,    1899. 
W.  F.  A.  Thomae. — Emery,  etc.,  in  the  Villayet  of  Aidin,  Asia  Minor.     Trans.  Amer. 

Inst.   Min.  Eng.,  XXVIII,  208-225.     New  York,    1899. 
J.  H.  Pratt. — The  occurrence  and  distribution  of  corundum  in  the  U.   S.      Bui.    180, 

U.    S.    Geological    Survey.      Washington,    1901. 
J.    H.    Pratt. — Corundum    and    its    occurrence    and    distribution    in    the    U.    S.      Bui. 

269,    U.    S.    Geological    Survey.      Washington,    1906. 

*J.    H.    Pratt    and    J.    V.    Lewis. — Corundum    and    the    peridotites    of    western    North 
Carolina.      North   Carolina    Geological    Survey.      Raleigh,    1905. 


389 


390  ABRASIVES. 

GARNET.5 

(See  under  Precious  Stones  at  page  466.) 

The  hardness  of  garnet  is  usually  from  6.5  to  7.5,  sometimes  nearly  8. 
Crushed  garnet  is  used  in  preparing  abrasive  paper  and  belts  for  vari- 
out  kinds  of  high  polishing,  especially  for  dressing  down  leather 
in  boot  and  shoe  factories  and  for  wood  polishing. 
The  garnet  for  abrasive  purposes  mined  in  the  Adirondack  Mountains 
is  of  superior  hardness;  it  occurs  in  large  crystals  in  pockets  in 
gneiss.     The  output  of  abrasive  garnet  in  1907  was  7,058  tons,  worth 
$211,686. 

SAND.6 

The  principal  use  of  sand  as  an  abrasive  is  in  connection  with  gang- 
saws  in  sawing  marble,  limestone,  and  other  stones. 

PUMICE.' 

Pumice  is   a  very  porous  light  lava,   used  in  polishing  various    sub- 
stances; most  of  the  pumice  of  commerce  comes  from  Mt.  Vesu- 
vius and  the  Lipari  Islands,  but  it  occurs  in  the  vicinity  of  volca- 
noes, both  active  and  extinct,  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 
Nebraska,  South  Dakota,  Wyoming,  Idaho,  Oregon,  and  California  con- 
tain pumice,  though  it  is  not  utilized  in  all  these  states. 
In  1908  there  were  produced  in  the  U.  S.  10,569  tons,  worth  $39,287. 

*M.   B.   Baker. — On  the   occurrence   and   development  of  corundum   in   Ontario.     Tour. 
Can.   Min.   Inst.    VII,   410-421.     Toronto,    1905. 

BF.   C.   Hooper. — Garnet  as   an  abrasive   material.      School   of   Mines   Quarterly,   XVI, 

124-127.      New    York,    1895. 

H.  C.  Magnus.     Abrasives  of  New  York  state.     23d  rep.   of  the  State   Geologist   for 
1903,    158-179.     Albany,    1904.      (Bibliography.) 

•Carborundum,  crushed  steel,  and  chilled  iron  shot,  all  of  them  artificial  products,  are 
largely  used  as  abrasives  for  purposes  similar  to  those  of  corundum,  sand,  etc. 

II.    J.    Johnston-Lavis. — The    south    Italian    volcanoes,    67-71.      Naples,    1891. 


391 


392  ABRASIVES. 


TRIPOLI. 

So-called  tripoli  is  fine  grained  diatomaceous  earth,  composed  of  the 
siliceous  skeletons  of  microscopic  plants.  The  plants  are  of  both 
fresh  and  salt  water  origin. 

Uses. 

As  a  polishing  powder.  Its  grains  must  be  small  enough  to  produce 
no  perceptible  scratch  on  the  surface  being  polished. 

As  a  cleaning  agent  in  sapolic  and  scouring  soaps. 

As  an   absorbent  for  nitroglycerin  in  the  manufacture   of  dynamite. 

In  blocks  for  blotters. 

With  shellac  for  making  phonograph  records. 

Oil  and  water  filters. 

Fireproofing  walls,  safes,  etc.,  and  non-conductors  for  steam  boilers 
and  steam  pipes. 

Distribution  and  Occurrence. 

Tripoli  is  found  in  the  United  States  in  Virginia  near  Richmond. 
In    California    diatomaceous    earth    is    abundant    throughout    the    coast 
ranges.      The  deposits  about  the  southwest  end  of  the  San  Joaquin 
valley  have  a  thickness  of  more  than  5,000  feet.     There  are  exten- 
sive beds  of  fresh  water  origin  in  Nevada. 
In  Newton  county,  Missouri,8  a  deposit  of  siliceous  limestone  from  which 

the  lime  has  been  leached  is  called  tripoli. 
Certain  deposits  of  siliceous  powder  found  in  Arkansas  are  derived  from 

the  novaculites  by  disintegration. 
Diatomaceous  earth  occurs  in  Arizona,9  New  Mexico,10  and  New  South 

Wales.11 

It  is  limited  to  no  particular  geologic  horizon,  but  the  older  deposits  are 
liable  to  be  too  hard  and  compact  to  be  useful  as  a  polishing  powder. 

8C.   E.    Siebenthal   and   R.    D.   Mesler. — Tripoli   deposits   near    Seneca,    Missouri.      Bui. 
340,  U.   S.    Geological   Survey,   429-439.     Washington,    1908.      (Bibliography.) 

•W.   P.    Blake. — Diatom-earth   in   Arizona.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XXXIII, 
38-45.     New  York,   1903. 

10C.    L.    Herrick.— The    so-called    Socorro    tripoli.      American    Geologist,    XVIII,    135- 
140.      Sept.,    1896. 

"E.    F.    Pittmann. — The    mineral    resources   of   New    South    Wales,    425-431.      Sydney, 
1901. 


393 


394  ABRASIVES. 


WHETSTONES.12 

Most  whetstones  are  varieties  of  sandstone,  schist,  or  novaculite,  with 
silica  as  the  abrasive  element.  They  are  generally  of  sedimentary 
origin.  Their  abrasive  powers  depend  largely  upon  the  size,  hard- 
ness, and  sharpness  of  the  grit  grains. 

PROPERTIES    OF    WHETSTONES. 

Effect  of  coarse-grained  and  fine-grained   stones  upon  tools.18 

Uniformity  in  size  and  distribution  of  the  grains  is  essential. 

The  compactness  of  the  stone  is  due  to  the  particles  being  cemented,  or 

to  their  being  pressed  together  with  or  without  cementing  matter. 
Character  of  grains. 

In  sandstones  the  grains  are  irregular  and  rough. 

In  schists  the  grains  are  small  and  angular  and  so  arranged  that  the 
rock  splits  readily  in  one  direction. 

WEAR    OF    WHETSTONES. 

The  stones  should  wear  faster  than  the  metal  being  ground,  in  order  to 

prevent  the  glazing  of  the  stones. 
Glazing  is  due  to  wearing  away  or  dulling  of  the  cutting  points,  and  the 

clogging  of  the  spaces  between  the  cutting  points,  or  both. 
Hard  fine-grained  stones  are  most  apt  to  glaze. 
Fast  wearing  stone. 
Slow  wearing  stone. 
Oilstones   are   so   called  because  oil   is   used   to   float   away   the   abraded 

metal. 

They  are  very  fine-grained. 
Scythe-stones  are  generally  used  dry. 
Water  is  sufficient  to  carry  away  the.  metal  from  coarse-grained  stones. 

VARIETIES    OF    WHETSTONES. 

Sandstones  furnish  most  of  the  whetstones  of  the  United  States. 
Labrador  stone  from  Cortland  county,  New  York. 
Hindostan  stone   from   Indiana.14 
Adamscobite  stone  from  Pierce  City,  Missouri. 
Schists  furnish  scythe-stones  especially. 

12L.  S.  Griswold. — Whetstones  and  the  novaculites  of  Arkansas!  Geological  Survey 
of  Arkansas  for  1890,  III.  Little  Rock,  1892. 

E.  M.  Kindle. — The  whetstone  and  grindstone  rocks  of  Indiana.  Twentieth  ann. 
rep.  Geological  and  Natural  History  Survey  of  Indiana,  1895,  329-368.  Indian- 
apolis, 1896. 

"A.  A.  Julien. — Effect  of  various  honestones  on  the  edge  of  steel  tools.  Jour. 
Applied  Microscopy,  VI,  2653-2661.  Rochester,  1910. 

»O.    C.    Salyards.— At   an   Indiana    whetstone    quarry.      Stone,    XIII,    539-543.      1896. 


395 


396  ABRASIVES. 

Whetslates. 

Novaculites :  the  novaculites  of  Arkansas  furnish  the  finest  oilstones  and 

honestones  in  the  world. 
The  Turkey  stone. 

Whetstones  of  the  United  States. 

Arkansas,  Indiana,  Vermont,  and  New  Hampshire   furnish  most  of  the 

whetstones  of  the  United  States. 
The   Arkansas    stone    (novaculite)    is   exceedingly    hard    and    is    adapted 

to  grinding  fine  edge  tools  of  all  sorts. 
The  "Arkansas  stone." 
The  "Ouachita  stone." 

Indiana. 

Oilstones  obtained  from  Orange  county  are  very  fine-grained  sandstone 
of  Carboniferous  age. 

Vermont. 

Whetstones  and  scythe-stones  are  principally  mica  schists  of  Cambrian 
and  Huronian  ages. 

New  Hampshire. 

Scythe-stones  and  other  whetstones  from  Grafton  county  are  of  mica 

schists  of  Huronian  and  Silurian  ages. 
New  York,  Cortland  county,  produces  Labrador  stone,  a  fine-grained  green 

sandstone. 

Missouri  produces  Adamscobite  stone  at  Pierce  City. 
Ohio,    at    Berea,    Cuyahoga    county,    and    Michigan,    at    Grindstone    City, 
Huron  county,  furnish  sandstone  scythe-stones. 

GRINDSTONES. 

Grindstones  are  made  from  sharp-grained  compact  sandstones ;  grains 
should  be  of  uniform  size,  and  the  stone  should  be  soft  enough  to  wear 
without  glazing. 

Most   of   the   grindstones   of   the   United    States   are   produced    in    Ohio, 

Michigan,  South  Dakota,  and  California. 
Many  other  states  supply  stones  for  local  demands. 
OHIO. 

Grindstones  are  quarried  in  northern  part  of  state  from  the  Berea  Grit 
which  is  in  the  Lower  Carboniferous.  Cuyahoga,  Lorain,  and  Sum- 
mit counties  are  the  principal  producers ;  there  are  also  quarries  in 
Stark  and  Washington  counties. 


397 


398  ABRASIVES. 

MICHIGAN. 

The  great  grindstone  quarries  of  Michigan  are  at  Grindstone  City,  90 
miles  north  of  Port  Huron;  the  sandstone  used  is  free  from  foreign 
matter  and  fine-grained. 


MILLSTONES. 

Millstones  are  not  properly  abrasives.      They  are   made   from   hard, 

sharp-grained,  tough  rocks,  of  coarse  texture. 
Quartzitic  conglomerates  are  frequently  used. 
Millstones  in  the  United  States  are  produced  principally  in  New  York, 

Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  Ohio. 
Buhrstone  is  a  quartz  conglomerate  with  an  open  cellular   structure 

especially  adapted  to   the  manufacture  of  millstones.      The  best 

qualities    of    buhrstone    come    from    the    Paris    basin    (Tertiary). 

Somewhat  similar  stones  occur  in  Alabama,   Arkansas,   Georgia, 

and  South  Carolina. 

Uses. 

In  grinding  grain. 
Crushing  other  materials. 

Effect  of  the  roller  process  in  the  manufacture  of  flour  on  the  demand 
for  millstones. 

CARBORUNDUM. 

Carborundum   is  an  artificial  product  made  by  fusing  in   an   electric 
furnace,  glass-sand  or  silica,  pulverized  coke  and  sawdust. 


399 


400  SALT. 


MISCELLANEOUS  MINERALS. 

SALT.1 

Common  salt  (NaCl),  sodium  39.4,  chlorine  60.6,  as  a  geological 
product,  occurs  as  salt  water  or  brine,  or  as  rock-salt  interstratified 
with  sedimentary  rocks. 

Uses. 

Preserving  meats,  and  domestic  purposes. 
Manufacture  of  soda. 
Chloridizing  ores  in  metallurgy. 
Manufacture  of  chlorine;  glaze  of  pottery. 

Origin. 

By  the  natural  evaporation  of  salt  water.2 

Thick  deposits  of  rock-salt  by  high  tides  flowing  into  closed  basins 

in  arid  regions,  or  by  evaporation  that  produces  a  constant  influx 

from  a  larger  to  a  smaller  basin.3 
Solutions  containing  salt  rising  toward  the  surface  and  cooling  and 

depositing  it. 

Distribution. 

Salt  occurs  in  sedimentary  rocks  from  the  Lower  Silurian  to  those  now 

forming,  and  in  almost  all  countries. 

Among  the  most  remarkable  salt  deposits  known  are  those  of: 
Galicia  and  Transylvania  in  Austria-Hungary. 

At  Wieliczka,4  Galicia,  it  is  mined  and  stoped  out  like  coal. 
The  Austrian  and  Bavarian  Alps. 
Western  Germany  at  Sperenberg,  near  Berlin,  3,600'.5 
At   Cardona,  near   Barcelona,  Spain,  is  an   open   quarry  of  rock- 
salt.6 

'Spons*   encyclopedia  of  industrial   arts,   etc.      Salt,   II,    1710-1740.      London,    1882. 
E.  W.  Parker. — Salt.     12th  Census  of  the  U.   S.,   IX,  pt.   Ill,   529-542.     Washington, 

1902. 
G.  P.   Merrill. — The  nonmetallic  minerals.     Rep.  U.   S.   Nat.   Mus.   for   1899,   195-213. 

Washington,    1901. 

!C.  V.  Bellamy. — A  description  of  the  salt-lake  of  Larnaca,  in  the  island  of  Cyprus. 
Quar.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc.,  LVI,  745-758.  London,  Nov.,  1900. 

*F.    Beaufort. — Karamania,    283-284.      London,    1818. 

4J.  H.  Vivian. — Remarks  on  the  salt  mines  of  Wielitska  in  Poland,  and  of  Salzburg 
in  Germany.  Trans.  Royal  Geological  Society  of  Cornwall,  I,  154-167.  London, 
1818. 

BH.  M.  Cadell. — The  salt  deposits  of  Stassfurt.  Trans.  Edin.  Geol.  Soc.,  V,  pt.  I, 
92-103.  Edinburgh,  1885. 

•L.  M.  Vidal. — Compte-rendu  de  1'excursion  au  gisement  de  sel  de  Cardona.  Bui. 
Soc.  Geol.  de  France,  3d  sen,  XXVI,  725-731.  Paris,  1898. 


401 


402  SALT. 

In  Peru*  it  is  mined. 
Springs  and  wells  in  China.8 

Salt  in  the  United  States.9 

New  York.1" 

In  the  Onondaga  district  near  Syracuse  the  brine  comes  from  the  Salina 

beds. 
In  the  Warsaw  district,  which  is  in  Wyoming,  Genesee,  and  Livingston 

counties    a    bed   of   rock-salt    in   the    Upper    Silurian    from    70'    to 

318'   thick   underlies    hundreds   of    square   miles.     Shafts    to    reach 

it  are  from  825'  to  1,430'  deep. 

Michigan.11 

Rock-salt  and  brine  from  Carboniferous  limestone,  accumulating  in  the 

Marshall  sandstone  below  the  gypsum.12 
Structural  features  of  the  Peninsula  syncline. 
The  deeper  brines  are  stronger. 

One  well,  1,964'  deep,  found  32'  rock-salt  in  Manistee  county. 
Wells  average  880'  in  depth. 

Kansas.™ 

Rock-salt  of  the  Trias  underlies  many  counties  in  the  central  and  south- 
ern parts  of  the  state ;  deposits  lenticular,  from  a  few  inches  to  200' 
thick;  from  400'-1,000'  below  the  surface. 

'Robert  Peele,  Jr. — A  Peruvian  salt  mine.     School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  XV,  219-221. 
New   York,    1894. 

*Louis    Coldre. — Les    salines    .     .     .    du    se-Tchoan.      Annales    des    Mines.      8me    ser. 
XIX,    441-528.      Paris,    1891. 

•Thomas    M.    Chatard. — Salt-making    processes    in    the    United    States.      Seventh    ann. 

rep.   U.    S.    Geological    burvey,    497-535.      Washington,    1888. 

W.  C.  Phalen.— Salt  in  the  U.   S.     Mineral  Resources  of  the  U.   S.   for   1908,  pt  II, 
643-657.      (Bibliography.)      Washington,    1909. 

10F.  J.  H.  Merrill. — Salt  and  gypsum  industries  of  New  York.     Bui.  New  York  State 

Museum,   III,   no.    11.     Albany,    1893. 
D.    D.    Luther. — The   Livonia   salt   shaft.      Rep.    State   Geologist    (of    New    York)    for 

1893,    11-130.      Albany,    1894. 
D.   D.   Luther. — The  brine  springs  and  salt  wells  of  New   York,  and  the   geology  of 

the    salt    district.      16th    ann.    rep.    State    Geologist    (of    New    York)    for    1896, 

175-226.      Albany,    1899. 

"A.    Winchell. — Geological    studies.      Geology   of    salt,    186-193.      Chicago,    1889. 
L.  L.  Hubbard. — The  origin  of  salt,  etc.     Geol.  Sur.  Mich.,  V,  pt.  II.     Lansing,  1895. 

I2G.  P.   Grimsley. — A   theory  of  origin   for  the   Michigan   gypsum   deposits.     American 
Geologist,   XXXIV,    378-387.      Dec.,    1904. 

"Robert    Hay. — Geology    of    Kansas    salt.       (No    date.) 
W.    R.    Crane. — Rock    salt    mining    in    Kansas.      Engineering    and    Mining    Journal, 

LXXV,    859-860.      New    York,    1903. 
S.  Ainsworth.— The   rock  salt  mining  industry  in   Kansas.      Engineering  and   Mining 

Journal,  LXXXVIII,   454-456.     New   York,   1909. 
C.   M.   Young. — Notes  on  the  evaporated  salt  industry  in   Kansas.      Engineering  and 

Mining   Journal,    LXXXVIII,    558-561.      New    York,    1909. 


403 


404 


SALT. 


Utah. 

Most  of  the  salt  is  made  from  the  waters  of  Salt  Lake.14     How  Salt  Lake 

came  to  be  salty. 
Louisiana™  and   Texas. 

The  Petite  Anse  deposits;  Tertiary;   structure. 


)  Gravel 


Fig.    113.  —  Section   showing  the  order  of  the   deposits  accompanying  the   rock-salt  beds 
of  Louisiana.       (Lucas.) 

California." 

Salt  is  produced  from  solar  evaporation  of  sea  water  in  Alameda,  San 

Mateo,  Los  Angeles,  and  San  Diego  counties. 

Ohio,  West  Virginia,  Idaho,  Nevada,  and  Oklahoma  produce  small  quan- 
tities of  salt. 

STATISTICS   OF   THE   CHIEF   SALT-PRODUCnVG   STATES. 

1897  1908 

Barrels  Barrels 

New  York  .....  6,805,854  9,076,743 

Michigan   ......  3,993,225  10,194,279 

Ohio   ..........  1,575,414  3,427,478 

Kansas  ........  1,538,327  2,588,814 

Utah   .........      405,179  242,678 

California    .....    470,893  899,028 

Louisiana   ............  947,129 


14J.   E.  Talmage. — The  great  Salt  Lake,  past  and  present.     Utah  University  Quarterly, 
II,    137-152.     Sept.,    1896. 

"A.   F.   Lucas. — Rock-salt  in   Louisiana.     Trans.   Amer.   Inst.   Min.    Eng.,   XXIX,   462- 

474.     New   York,    1900. 
G.   D.  Harris. — The  geological  occurrence  of  rock  salt  in  Louisiana   and  east  Texas. 

Economic   Geology,   IV,    12-34.     Jan.,    1909. 

"E.  C.   Eckel.— The  salt  industry  in  Utah  and  California.     Bui.   225,  U.   S.   Geological 

Survey,    490-495.     Washington,    1904. 

G.   E.    Bailey. — The   saline   deposits  of   California.      Bui.   24,   California   State    Mining 
Bureau.     Sacramento,    1902. 


405 


406 


SALT. 


ThE.  PRODUCTION    OF  3ALT  IN 
THE   UNITED  STATES    BY  THE 
PRINCIPAL  SALT  PRODUCING 

STATES  SINCE:  I860. 

NEW   YORK       

MICHIGAN 

OHIO 

KBNSAS 

UTAH 


Fig.    114. 


407 


408 


BORAX. 

Borax  is  sodium  biborate  (NazBiOr  +  10  H2O) :  boron  trioxide  36.6, 
soda  16.2,  water  47.2). 

Uses.1 

As  an  antiseptic  and  in  medicine. 

In  the  manufacture  of  enamels  for  pottery. 

In  the  manufacture  of  soap. 

As  a  flux  in  metallurgy. 

In  the  welding  of  steel. 

Occurrence  and  Origin. 

Most  of  the  borax  of  commerce  is  from  the  native  borax  or  tincal, 
a  borate  of  soda,  from  colemanite,  a  borate  of  lime,  and  ulexite, 
borates  of  lime  and  soda. 

These  minerals  occur  as  crystals  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  borax 
lakes,  and  in  the  dry  beds  of  old  borax  lakes,  or  in  loose  or 
massive  form. 

Borax  is  also  made  from  the  underground  waters  that  have  passed 
over  or  through  rocks  containing  soluble  borates. 

The  borax  in  the  lake  water,  in  the  mud  at  the  bottoms  of  the  lakes, 
or  in  the  ancient  lake  bottoms  has  been  concentrated  by  evapora- 
tion from  wa'ters  containing  boron  in  solution. 

Borax  occurs  as  a  geological  deposit  only  in  arid  regions  such  as  Asia 
Minor,  Thibet,  northern  Chile2  and  the  dry  portion  of  south- 
eastern California. 

Borax  in  the  United  States.3 
California.4 

Discovered  by  Dr.  Veatch  at  Borax  Lake  in  Lake  county  in  1856. 
Searles  Borax  marsh,  San  Bernardino  county,  the  dry  bed  of  an  old 
lake;  the  old  shore  terraces  are  600'  above. 

'C.  G.  Yale.— Borax.  Mineral  Resources  of  the  U.  S.  for  1904,  1017-1028.  Wash- 
ington, 1905. 

JBoratos,   Estadistica  minera  de   Chile  en    1903,   298-310.      Santiago,    1905. 

SC.   G.    Yale.— Borax.     Mineral   Resources   of  the   United   States  for    1889-90,   494-506. 

Washington,   1892. 
Henry   G.   Hanks. — Report  on   the   borax   deposits  of   California   and   Nevada.     Third 

ann.    rep.    State    Mineralogist    of   California.      Sacramento,    1883. 
Borax.       Fourth    ann.    rep.    State    Mineralogist    of    California,     80-93.       Sacramento, 

1884. 
G.   P.   Merrill. — The  nonmetallic  minerals.     Rep.   U.    S.   Nat.   Museum  for   1899,   396- 

402.      Washington,    1901. 
Chas.    R.   Keyes. — Borax-deposits   of  the   U.   S.     Trans.   Amer.    Inst.   Min.   Eng.,   XL, 

674-710.      New   York,    1910. 

«G.  E.  Bailey.— The  saline  deposits  of  California.  Bui.  24,  California  State  Mining 
Bureau,  33-90.  Sacramento,  1902. 


409 


410  BORAX. 

Igneous  rocks  of  the  surrounding  country. 
Succession  of  deposits  in  the  bottoms  of  valleys. 

At  Calico,  San  Bernardino  county,  is  a  lime  borate  (colemanite)  deposit 
interbedded  with  other  sedimentary  rocks.  It  is  mined  by  shafts  and 
drifts. 

Death  Valley5  in  Inyo  county. 
Saline  Valley,  Inyo  county,  in  marshes. 
Water   containing    borax    in    solution    is    pumped    from    wells    in   the 

valleys   and   evaporated. 
Nevada. 

Lake  near  Ragtown;  Sand  Springs. 
Oregon. 

At  the  Cheto  mine,  in  Curry  county,  priceite  occurs  as  boulders  weighing 

from  a  few  ounces  to  several  hundred  pounds. 
Borax  in  a  marsh  in  Harney  county.6 
The  borax  industry  of  the  United  States  began  in  California  in  1865. 

EXAMPLES  OF  BORAX  PRODUCTION   IN   THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Year  Tons 

1878   1,401 

1888    3,795 

1898    8,000 

1906   58,173 

1908  25,000 

"M    R.   Campbell. — Reconnaissance  of  the  borax  deposits  of  Death  valley  and   Mojave 

desert.     Bui.  200,  U.   S.   Geological   Survey.     Washington,    1902. 

E    Hart. — Death   valley,   California,   and   its   borax  industry.      Trans.    Amer.    Ceramic 
Soc.,    V,    64-73.      Columbus,    1903. 

*W.    B.    Dennis. — A    borax    mine    in    southern    Oregon.      Enigneering    and    Mining 
Journal,    LXXIII,    581.      New    York,    1902. 


411 


412 


BORAX. 


BORAX. 

THE.  BORAX  PRODUCTION 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
SINCE  1875. 


Fig.    115. 


413 


414  SODA. 


SODA.1 

Most  of  the  soda  of  commerce  is  an  artificial  product  manufactured 
from  common  salt. 

Natural  soda  is  the  residue  from  the  evaporation  of  alkaline  waters 
and  consists  of  sodium  carbonate  (NazCOs)  and  sodium  bicar- 
bonate (NaHCOs)  in  varying  proportions,  mixed  with  impurities, 
chiefly  sodium  chloride  (NaCl)  and  sodium  sulphate  (Na2SO4). 

The  chief  natural  soda  minerals  are:  trona  or  urao  (Na2COa.  Na 
HCO8  +  2H2O)  :  carbon  dioxide  38.9,  soda  41.2,  water  19.9;  natron 
(Na2CO8  -f  1OH2O)  :  carbon  dioxide  15.4,  soda  21.7,  water  62.9;  and 
thermonatrite  (Na2CO3  +  H2O)  :  carbon  dioxide  35.5,  soda  50.0,  water 
14.5. 

Origin. 

Soda  is  produced  by  the  evaporation  and  concentration  of  surface 
waters  flowing  from  or  over  igneous  rocks  containing  soda  in  the 
constituent  minerals. 

It  is  to  be  expected  in  any  country  where  both  the  geologic  and 
the  climatic  conditions  are  favorable. 

Natural  Soda  in  the  United  States. 
It  forms  a  large  part  of  the  so-called  alkali  of  the  arid  regions  of  the 

western    United    States. 
Nevada:  two  lakes  at  Ragtown. 
California:   Mono   Lake  in  Inyo   county.3 
Oregon:  Albert  and  Summer  Lakes. 
Wyoming4:  deposits  containing  34%  sodium  and  magnesium  sulphate 

cover  great  areas  in  south-central  Wyoming. 

'Soda  products.      12th   Census,   X,    539-543.      Washington,    1902. 

'Thomas   M.   Chatard. — Natural   soda;    its   occurrence  and   utilization.      Bui.   60,  U.   S. 
Geological    Survey,    27-101.      Washington,    1890. 

«G.   E.    Bailey. — The  saline  deposits  of   California.      Bui.  24,   California   State   Mining 
Bureau.      Sacramento,    1902. 

<T.   T.    Read.— The   alkali   deposits   of   Wyoming.      American    Geologist,    XXXIV,    164- 
169.     Minneapolis,    1904. 


415 


416  SULPHUR. 

SULPHUR.1 

Uses. 

Manufacture  of  gunpowder. 

Manufacture  of  wood  pulp.2 

Sulphuric  acid.8 

Matches,  paper,  fertilizers,  insecticides. 

Medicine. 

Occurrence. 

Native  and  in  combination  with  other  elements. 
Native  sulphur. 

1.  In  volcanic  regions   deposited  from  sulphurous  gases. 

2.  As  an  alteration  of  gypsum. 
Sulphur  of  organic  origin.4 

In  combination  its  most  important  form  as  a  source  of  sulphur  is  that 
of  iron  pyrites,  which  occurs  in  veins,  beds,  and  irregular  pockets. 
(See  Iron  Pyrites.) 

Distribution. 

Geologic. 

Native  sulphur  is  found  principally  in  Tertiary,  Pleistocene,  and  recent 

deposits. 
Geographic. 

Sicily  is  the  principal  source  of  native  sulphur.5 

The  mines  spread  over  an  area  of  5,000  square  miles,  the  sulphur 
occurring  in  veins  and  masses  from  three  to  ten  feet  thick,  in 
Miocene  limestone.  Some  petroleum  and  bitumen  is  associated 
with  the  sulphur. 

Antiquated  methods  of  exploitation. 
Rock  containing  less  than  8%  sulphur  is  not  worked. 

JW.   C.   Phalen. — Sulphur  and  pyrite.     Mineral   Resources   of  the  U.   S.   for   1907,   pt. 

II,  673-683.     Washington,   1908.     Same  for   1908,  pt.   II,  659-668.     Washington, 

1909. 
G.  P.   Merrill.— The  nonmetallic  minerals.     Rep.  U.   S.   Nat.   Museum,    1899,    174-181. 

Washington,     1901. 
E.   W.   Parker.— Sulphur   and   pyrite.      20th   ann.    rep.    U.    S.    Geological    Survey,    pt. 

VI,  continued,  641-655.     Washington,    1899. 

2Herman   Frasch. — Brimstone   versus   pyrite   for  wood-pulp   manufacture.      Engineering 
and   Mining  Journal,    LXXX,    1165-1166.      New   York,    1905. 

*Dr.   R.    Kneitsch. — Sulphuric   acid   and   its   manufacture   by   the   contact-process.      Pop. 
Sci.    Monthly,    LXI,    24-31.      New    York,    1902. 

4On   sulphur    formed    by   bacteria,   see   American    Naturalist,    XXXII,    456-457.      June, 
1898. 

'Giovanni    Aichino. — The    sulphur    industry    of    Italy.       The    Mineral    Industry    for 
1899,   VIII,    592-616.     New   York,    1900.      (Bibliography.) 


417 


418  SULPHUB. 

Sulphur  deposits  of  Japan  of  the  solfataric  type. 

The  island  of  Hpkkaido  is  the  principal  source  of  supply. 
Mexico,  New  Zealand:  sulphur  occurs  about  several  volcanic  mountains, 

but  little  is  produced. 
In  Iceland6  solfataric. 

New  Hebrides  Islands :   sulphur  occurs  on  a  volcanic  cone  on  the  Isle 
of  Tauna. 

Sulphur  in  the  United  States.1 

Large  deposits  on  Kodiak  Island,  Alaska,  are  not  worked  at  present. 
There  are  deposits  also  on  Unalaska. 

California :  in  connection  with  igneous  rocks  at  Sulphur  Bank,  Lake 
county;  also  in  Colusa  and  Kern  counties  and  on  the  western 
rim  of  the  Salton  desert  in  San  Diego  county. 

Nevada:  in  the  Humboldt  mountains,  in  irregular  masses  associated 
with  gypsum,  and  east  of  the  south  end  of  Big  Smoky  valley.8 

Utah:  the  Cove  Creek  mines  are  26  miles  east  of  Black  Rock,  in  a  vol- 
canic region.  The  sulphur  is  in  veins,  and  impregnates  a  tuff 
in  a  zone  of  faulting  and  volcanic  activity.  The  sulphur  rock  is 
30'  thick  and  less. 

Louisiana  is  the  chief  source  of  sulphur  in  the  United  States.8  The 
deposits  are  in  Cretaceous  sediments.  Peculiar  method  of  mining 
by  the  use  of  hot  water. 

Texas10:  sulphur  occurs  near  Guadalupe. 

Wyoming  has  sulphur  deposits  near  Cody  and  near  Thermopolis." 

THE   PRODUCTION   AND   IMPORTS    OF   SULPHUR  IN    THE   UNITED   STATES. 

Production.  Imports. 


Year 

Pounds 

Value 

Pounds 

Value 

1880    ... 

..    ..        536.... 

.  ...$     21,000.... 

..  98,751    ... 

...$2,034,899 

1890    ... 

1,071.... 

39,600  .  .  . 

.  ..131,300  .  .. 

...   2,683,971 

1898    ... 

1,071.... 

32,960... 

...184,250   .. 

.  ...  3,069,924 

1904    ... 

127,292.... 

2,663,760... 

...129,553    .., 

.  ..   2,511,269 

1908    ... 

369,444.... 

6,668,215... 

.  .   21,136   .. 

.  .  .      362,379 

«W.  L.  Watts. — Across  the  Vatna  Jokull,  or  scenes  in  Iceland,   113-116,   129,   141,   154. 
London,    1876. 

'J.    F.    Kemp.— Sulphur.      Mineral   Industry  for    1893,   II,    585-602.      New   York,    1894. 

8H.    W.    Turner. — The    Esmeralda    formation,    a    fresh-water    lake    deposit    in    Nevada. 

Twenty-first  ann.   rep.    U.    S.    Geological   Survey,   pt.    II,   207-208.     Washington, 

1900. 
9D.   A.   Willey. — The   sulphur  mines  of   Louisiana.     Engineering  and   Mining  Journal, 

LXXXIV,    1107-1109.      New    York,    1907. 
10E.  A.   Smith. — Notes  on  native  sulphur  in  Texas.     Science,  III,  new  series,   657-659, 

New    York,    1896. 
Sulphur   .        .   in  Trans-Pecos,  Texas.     Bui.  2,  Univ.  of  Texas  Min.   Survey.    Austin, 

1902. 
"W.    C.    Phalen. — Sulphur    and    pyrite.      Mineral    Resources    of    the    U.    S.,    for    1907, 

pt.   II,   674-675;   same   for   1908,    pt.   II,   660-661. 


419 


420  BARYTES. 


BARYTES.1 

Barite,  barytes,  or  heavy  spar  is  the  sulphate  of  barium  (BaSO«): 
sulphur  trioxide  34.3,  baryta  65.7. 

Uses. 

Manufacture  of  paint  as  a  substitute  for  white  lead  and  zinc  oxide. 
Weighting  paper  and  putty. 

Lithophone,  used  as  a  pigment  for  special  purposes,  is  a  mixture  of 
barium  sulphate  (68%),  zinc  (7.28),  and  zinc  sulphide  (24.85%). 

Occurrence  and  Distribution. 

It  occurs  as  vein-stone  associated  with  ores  of  lead,  copper,  silver,  etc., 
as  pockets  in  limestone,  and  as  amygdules  in  eruptive  rocks.  In 
the  United  States  the  principal  deposits  worked  are  in  Missouri,2 
Tennessee  and  Virginia.3  It  occurs  also  in  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  Kentucky,  Arkansas,  New  Jersey,  and  in  many 
other  states. 
Missouri  is  the  leader  in  the  production  of  barytes.2 

In  Tennessee,  the  second  in  production  of  barytes,  it  is  mined  from 
clays  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  the  containing  rock. 

In  Virginia  there  are  many  occurrences  of  the  mineral  in  lenticular 
and  vein-like  masses  in  pockets  and  fracture  zones  in  limestone. 
It  is  a  replacement  of  the  limestones  by  shallow  solutions  and  the 
mineral  is  derived  from  the  limestone. 

At  Five  Islands,  Nova  Scotia.4 

Production  of  crude  barytes  in  the  United  States  in  1908  was  38,527 
short  tons,  worth  $120,442,  which  was  much  less  than  the  output 
of  the  preceding  year.  Imports  in  1908  amounted  to  17,062  tons. 

JE.  F.  Burchard.  —  Barytes  and  strontium.  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States 
for  1907,  pt.  II,  685-696.  Washington,  1908.  (Bibliography.)  Same  for 
1908,  pt.  II,  669-673.  Washington,  1909. 

2A.  A.   Steel.  —  The  geology,   mining,   and   preparation  of  barite   in   Washington  county, 


ining,   an 
st.    Min. 


3T.    L.    Watson.  —  Geology    of   the    Virginia    barite    deposits.      Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 
Eng.,   XXXVIII,    710-733.      New   York,    1908. 

E.   K.   Judd.  —  The   barytes   industry   of   the   south.      Engineering   and   Mining  Journal, 
LXXXIII,    751-753.     New   York,    1907. 

4W.    S.    Hutchinson.  —  Barytes    deposits    at    Five    Islands,    Nova    Scotia.      Engineering 
and   Mining  Journal,   LXXXIV,   825-826.      New   York,    1907. 


421 


422  SODA  NITER. 


SODA  NITER. 

Soda  niter  is  sodium  nitrate  (Na2O  -(-  N2O5) :  nitrogen  pentoxide  63.5, 
soda  36.5. 

Uses. 

Manufacture  of  nitric  acid. 
Potting  of  sulphuric  acid. 
Manufacture  of  potassium  nitrate. 
Medicine. 
Fertilizers. 

Occurrence.1 

In   the   deserts   of   northern   Chile,2    Peru,3   and    Bolivia,    associated   with 

gypsum  and  salt. 
The  deposits  are  mostly  near  the  surface,  and  are  worked  in  open  pits 

of  irregular  form. 
The  artificial  production  of  nitrate  of  lime  in  Norway.4 

JA.  Pissis. — Nitrate  and   guano   deposits   in  the   desert   of  Atacama    (Chile).     London, 

1878. 
A.  Muntz. — Recherches  sur  la  formation  des  gisements  de  nitrate  de  soude.     Comptes 

Rendus,    CI,    1265.      Paris,    1885. 
G.   E.   Brown.— The   nitrate   deposits   of   Chile.      Mining  Journal,    LXXXVI,    259-263. 

London,    1909. 

;The  nitrate  of  soda  industry  (in  Chile).  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  LXXI, 
241-242.  New  York,  1901. 

*A.   J.   Duffield.— Peru  in  the  guano  age,    102-119.     London,    1877. 

•J.  B.  C.  Kershaw. — The  artificial  production  of  nitrate  of  lime.  Science  Progress, 
II,  361-364.  London,  Oct.  1906. 

A.  J.  Lotka. — The  manufacture  of  nitrates  from  air. — Engineering  and  Mining 
Journal,  LXXXIII,  848.  New  York,  1907. 

Processes  for  the  fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen.  Xature,  LXXXI,  143-144.  Lon- 
don, July  29,  1909. 


423 


424  NITER. 


NITER  OR  SALTPETER. 

Niter  of  saltpeter  is  nitrate  of  potash  (KNO3):  nitrogen  pentoxide 
53.5,  potash  46.5. 

Uses. 

Manufacture  of  gunpowder  and  fireworks. 

Medicinal  purposes. 

Antiseptic. 

Fertilizer. 

Occurrence  and  Distribution.1 

It  occurs  in  shallow  or  surface  deposits,  mingled  with  the  dry  earth 
in  caves.  The  large  deposits  are  found  near  the  surface  and  in 
crevices  between  loose  stones  in  certain  arid  regions.  The  niter 
is  prepared  by  leaching  it  from  the  crude  materials  and  redeposit- 
ing  from  the  solutions. 

Relation  to  organic  matter. 

Iodine  is  a  by-product. 

Chile2  in  the  vicinity  of  Iquique  has  the  largest  known  deposits. 

In  the  caves3  of  Ceylon  and  Teneriffe;  also  in  caves  of  Minas  Geraes, 
and  Bahia  in  Brazil;  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Arkansas,  and  Wyo- 
ming. 

Stassfurt  mines  of  Germany. 

JMuntz   et   Marcano. — Sur  la    formation   des   terres   nitrees   dans   les   regions   tropicales. 

Comptes   Rendus,   CI,   65.      Paris,    1885. 

Muntz. — Recherches    sur   la    formation    des    giserrents    de    nitrate    de    soude.      Comptes 
Rendus,    CI,    1265.     Paris,    1885. 

=R.    A.    F.    Penrose   Jr. — The   nitrate    deposits    of   Chile.      Journal    of    Geology,    XVIII, 

1-32.      Chicago,    1910. 

Mark    G.    Lamb. — The    niter    industry    of    Chile.        Engineering    and    Mining    Journal, 
XC,    18-22.     New   York,    1910. 

*W.    H.    Hess. — The    origin   of   nitrates    in    cavern   earths.      Journal    of   Geology,    VIII, 

129-134.      Chicago,    1900. 

H.  W.  Nichols. — Nitrates  in  cave  earths.     Journal  of  Geology,  IX,  236-243.    Chicago, 
19Q1. 


425 


426  OZOKERITE. 


OZOKERITE  OR  OZOCERITE.1 

Ozokerite   or  mineral   tar   is   partially   oxidized   petroleum.       It   is 
as  hard  as  beeswax,  and  has  the  odor  of  petroleum. 

Uses. 

Its  principal  use  is  for  making  paraffine  candles;  other  uses  are  wax 
matches,  as  a  lubricant,  protecting  metals  from  rust,  and  for  in- 
sulating purposes,  calking  ships,  adulterating  beeswax,  making 
wax  dolls,  varnishes,  and  blacking. 

Occurrence. 

It  is  always  associated  with  petroleum  in  sedimentary  rocks. 

The  principal  known  deposits  are  in  the  Tertiary  sandstones  of 
Galicia,  Austria,  north  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  where  it  fills 
thin,  irregular  veins.  It  gets  softer  with  depth  on  account  of  the 
greater  oxidation  near  the  surface. 

American  Deposits. 

In    the    Wasatch    Mountains,    100   miles    east    of    Salt    Lake,    are    the 
only  known  American  deposits  of  any  importance;  they  are  not 
worked  at  present. 
It  occurs  in  vertical  fissures  in  crushed  Tertiary  strata.2 

It  probably  occurs  in  the  petroleum  and  asphaltum  regions  of  southern 
California. 

1T.  S.  Newberry. — The  origin  of  the  carbonaceous  matter  in  bituminous  shales.  An- 
nals of  the  New  York  Acad.  of  Sci.,  II,  357-367.  New  York,  1882. 

S.  F.  Peckham. — (Notes  on  the  origin  of  bitumens.)  Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  X, 
445-462.  Philadelphia,  1865-1868;  XXXVII,  108-139.  Philadelphia,  1898; 
Amer.  Jour  Sci..  XCVIII,  131-133.  New  Haven,  1869;  XCVIII,  362-370. 
New  Haven,  1869.  (References.) 

L.  Lartet. — Sur  les  gites  bitumineux  de  la  Judee,  etc.  Bui.  Soc.  Geol.  de  France,  2me 
ser.,  XXIV,  12-32.  Paris,  1867. 

Edward  B.  Gosling. — A  treatise  on  ozokerite.  The  School  of  Mines  Quarterly  XVI, 
41-68.  New  York,  1895. 

2J.  A.  Taff  and  C.  D.  Smith.— Ozokerite  in  Utah.     Bui.  285,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 

369-372.     Washington,    1906. 
J.  E.  Clayton. — Ozokerite  or  mineral  wax.     Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,   XXXIX, 

168-169.      New   York,    1885. 


427 


428  GRAPHITE. 


GRAPHITE,  PLUMBAGO,  OR  BLACK  LEAD.1 

Graphite  is  pure  carbon,  having  a  greasy  feel  and  a  black  metallic 
lustre. 

Uses.2 

Best  qualities  are  used  for  lead  pencils  and  crayons. 

An   important   use   is   for  making   crucibles   and   other   refractory   ma- 
terials. 

As  a  lubricant  that  is  not  affected  by  cold,  heat,  or  air.3 
Inferior  grades  are  used  for  stove  polish. 
In   electrotyping. 
Foundry  facings. 
Graphite  paint. 

Occurrence. 
Graphite  is  most  abundant  in  old  metamorphic  rocks  where  it  occurs 

as  vein-like  deposits  and  in  bed-like   deposits. 
Theory  of  its  organic'  origin4  from  hydro-carbons. 

1.  The  liquid  theory  of  Diersche. 

2.  The  gaseous  theory  of  Walther. 
Theory  of  its  chemical  production.5 
Graphite  found  in   pig  iron;  why. 

Distribution. 

Widely  distributed,  but  mined  in  few  countries. 

The   leading  producers   in   the   order   of   their   importance   at   present 
are:  Austria,  Ceylon,   Germany,  Italy,  United   States,  and  Japan. 
The  product  of  the  Alibert  mine  in  Siberia  is  used  for  the  best  pencils. 
The  Ceylon  product  is  noted  for  its  purity. 

JFritz    Cirkel. — Graphite;     its    properties,     occurrence,     refining,     and    uses.       Dept.     of 

Mines,    Canada.      Ottawa,    1907.      (Bibliography.) 
G.   P.    Merrill.— The   nonmetallic  minerals.      Rep.   U.    S.    Nat.    Museum,    1899,    168-174. 

Washington,    1901. 
J.    A   Walker.— Graphite.      Mineral    Resources   of   the   United    States,    1883-1884,    915- 

919.      Washington,    1885. 
E.     Weinschenk. — Memoire     sur     1'histoire     geologique     du     graphite.       -Compt.     Rend. 

CongrSs.    Geol.    Internal.,    I,    447-457.      Paris,    1901. 

=Dr.  Heinrich  Weger. — Der  graphit  und  seine  wichtigsten  Annendungen.  Berlin, 
1872. 

"Graphite.      Mineral    Industry,    VII,    382-387.      New    York,    1899. 

<A.  Taylor.— (Coal  converted  into  graphite.)  Trans.  Edin.  Geol.  Soc.,  II,  368.  Edin- 
burgh, 1874. 

I.  C.  White. — Origin  of  grahamite.  Bui.  Geol.  Soc.  Amer.,  X,  277-284.  Rochester, 
1899. 

J.  S.  Newberry.— The  origin  of  graphite.  School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  VIII,  334- 
335.  New  York,  1887. 

5T.  F.  Kemp. — Pre-Cambrian  sediments  in  the  Adirondacks.  Science,  new  series,  XII, 
94-96.  New  York,  1900. 


429 


430  GRAPHITE. 

Austria* 

The  Austrian  graphite  deposits  are  in  gneiss  and  schist;  in  places  they 

are  eighteen  feet  thick. 
Ceylon.1 

The  veins  are  in  gneiss;   some  of  the  graphite  99.79  per  cent  carbon. 
Germany. 

In  Bavaria  a  vein  in  gneiss  is  sometimes  16  feet  thick ;  the  product  is 

impure. 

Japan,  Italy,  India*  Queensland!1 
Canada.1" 

In  veins  and  thin  seams  in  Laurentian  rocks;  the  most  important  Cana- 
dian deposits  are  in  the  Province  of  Quebec. 
United  States. 

Many  occurrences  of  graphite  in  the  United  States,  but  the  only  mines 
worked  are   those  at   Graphite,    near   Ticonderoga,    N.    Y.,   and    at 
Cranston,  R.  I.11    At  the  latter  place  it  is  associated  with  anthracite. 
It  occurs  in  the  Coal  Measures  o>f  New  Mexico. 
In  Gunnison  county,  Colorado,  are  graphite  beds  2  feet  thick. 
In  Albany  county,  Wyoming,  it  occurs  in  veins. 
In  California  it  is  mixed  with  kaolin. 

Importance  and  difficulty  of  separation  from  any  substance  that  is  dif- 
ficult to  settle  in  water. 
The  possible  artificial  production  of  graphite.12 

«M.    Bonnefoy. — La    geologic    et    1'exploitation    des    gites    de    graphite    de    la    Boheme 

Meridionale.     Annales   des   Mines,    7   ser.,    XV,    157-208.      Paris,    1879. 
TA.    K.    Coomara-Swamy. — On    Ceylon    rocks    and    graphite.      Quar.    Jour.    Geol.    Soc., 

LVI,    590-615.      London,    1890.      (Bibliography.) 
8V.  Ball. — A  manual  of  the  geology  of  India,  III,  Economic  Geology,  50-58.     Calcutta, 

1881. 
"B.   Dunstan.— Graphite  in  Queensland.     Pub.   203,   Geological   Survey   of  Queensland. 

Brisbane,    1906. 

"Quar.    Jour.    Geol.    Soc.,    XXV,    406.      London,    1869. 
J.    W.    Dawson. — On   the   graphite   of   the    Laurentian    of    Canada.      American   Journal 

of   Science,   C,    130-134.      New   Haven,    1870. 
"R.  H.   Palmer. — A   graphite   mine.     Engineering  and   Mining  Journal,   LXVIII,   694. 

New  York,    1899. 
E.    S.    Bastin. — Origin    of   certain   Adirondack    graphite    deposits.      Economic    Geology, 

V,    134-157.      March,    1910.      (Bibliography.) 
E.   S.   Bastin.— Graphite.     Mineral  Resources  of  the  U.   S.   for   1908,   pt.   II,   717-738. 

Washington,    1909. 
12F.   J.    Fitzgerald. — The   conversion   of   amorphus   carbon   to   graphite.      Jour.    Franklin 

Inst.,    CLIV,    321-348.      Philadelphia,    1902. 


431 


432 


GRAPHITE. 


GRAPHITE. 

--£-    THE  PRODUCTION  OF  GRAPHITE  BY     Lt 

THE  PRINCIPAL    PRODUCING 
-H        COUNTRIES  SINCE     I8QO. 


::±  CEYLON      

L    AU3 

GERMANY 


Fig.    116. 


433 


434  BAUXITE. 


BAUXITE.1 

Bauxite  is  hydrate  of  alumina  (Al2Os2H2O);  essentially  alumina 
73.9,  water  26.1%.  It  is  massive,  oolitic,  or  earthy;  white,  gray,  red 
or  mottled. 

Uses. 

Manufacture  of  alum,2  sulphate  of  alumina,  and  aluminum,3  and  as  a 
refractory  material  or  for  increasing  the  refractoriness  of  fire- 
clays. 

Occurrence. 

In  southern  France  it  occurs  in  massive  beds  at  the  junctions  be- 
tween the  Triassic  and  Jurassic;  in  Italy;4  in  Arkansas3  as  beds 
and  irregular  masses  in  Tertiary  rocks,  and  as  alteration  products 
from  syenites  sometimes  covering  many  acres;  in  Alabama  as  beds 
interstratified  with  Paleozoic  rocks. 

Bauxite   occurs  in   Georgia6  between   Cretaceous   and  Tertiary  rocks. 

1G.   P.    Merrill.— The  nonmetallic   minerals.      Rep.    for    1899,   U.    S.   Nat.    .Museum,   229- 

239.      Washington,    1901. 
2Alums.      12th   Census   of   the   U.    S.,    X,    546-548.      Washington,    1902. 

3T.    W.     Richards. — Aluminum:     its    history,    occurrences,    properties,    metallurgy,    etc. 

Philadelphia,    1890. 
4G.    Aichino.— La    bauxite.      Rassegna    Mineraria,    XV,     15,    16,     17,    and    18.      Torino, 

1902. 

BJ.    C.    Branner. — The   bauxite   deposits   of   Arkansas.      Journal    of    Geology,    V,    no.    3, 

263-289.      Chicago,    1897.       (Bibliography.) 

C.     W.     Hayes. — The     Arkansas     bauxite     deposits.       Twenty-first     ann.     rep.     U.     S. 
Geological    Survey,    pt.     Ill,    435-472.       Washington,     1901. 

•The   bauxite   of   Wilkinson   county,    Georgia.      Bui.,  18,    Geological    Survey    of    Georgia, 
430-447.     Atlanta,    1909. 


435 


436  MOXAZITE. 


MONAZITE.1 

Monazite  is  a  phosphate  of  cerium,  lanthanum,  and  didymium,  but 
it  contains  a  small  amount  of  thoria,  which  makes  it  valuable  for  its 
present  uses. 

Uses. 

For  making  the  mantels  of  incandescent  gas  burners. 

Occurrence. 

It   occurs   as    small    crystals    scattered    through    certain    granites    and 

gneisses.     After  the  decay  of  the  rocks  the  monazite  is  mechanically 

concentrated  by  water. 

It  was  formerly  mined   in   North   Carolina"  from   small   placer   de- 
posits. 

It  occurs  also  in   Idaho.3 
The    largest    monazite    deposits    known    are    in    the   beach    sands    of   the 

coast  of  Brazil  near  Prado,  285  miles  south  of  the  city  of  Bahia. 

The  sands  are  derived  directly  from  the  Cretaceous  or  Tertiary 

sediments    that    form   the   shore   bluffs,   but   these    sediments   are 

derived  from   the  older  crystalline  rocks. 
Monazite   sands   have   also  been    discovered   on   the  beaches   of  New 

South  Wales4  and  Queensland.5 

»L.    M.    Dennis.— Monazite.      Mineral    Industry    for    1897,    VI,    487-494.      New    York, 

1898. 
O.   A.    Derby. — Notes  on  monazite.      Amer.   Jour.    Sci.,   CLX,   217-221.     New   Haven, 

1900. 
G.    P.     Merrill. — The    nonmetallic    minerals.       Rep.    U.     S.    Nat.     Museum    for     1899, 

383-387.      Washington,    1901. 
H.    B.    C.    Nitze. — Monazite.      Sixteenth    ann.    rep.    U.    S.    Geological    Survey,    pt.    IV, 

667-693.      Washington,    1905.      (Bibliography.) 
C.    H.    Jouet. — -Index    to    the    literature    of    thorium,     1817-1902.       Smithsonian    Misc. 

Coll.      Washington,    1903. 

=H.     B.     C.     Nitze. — Monazite    and    monazite    deposits    in    North     Carolina.       Bui.     9, 
North    Carolina    Geological    Survey.      Winston,    1895. 

C.  A.    Mezger. — The  monazite   districts  of   North   and   South   Carolina.     Trans.    Amer. 

Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XXV,    822-826.      New    York,    1896. 

J.    H.    Pratt   and    D.    B.    Sterrett. — Monazite    and   monazite    mining    in    the    Carolinas. 
Trans.   Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng.,   XL,    313-340.      New    York,    1910. 

D.  B.    Sterrett. — Monazite   deposits   of   the   Carolinas.      Bui.    340D,    U.    S.    Geological 

Survey,   44-57.      Washington,    1908. 

SF.   C.   Schrader. — An  occurrence  of  monazite  in  northern  Idaho.       Bui.   430D,  U.   S. 

Geological    Survey,    36-43.      Washington,    1910. 
4T.    C.    H.    Mingaye. — Notes   on    the    occurrence    of    monazite    in    the   beach    sands    of 

the    Richmond    river,    New    South    Wales.     Records    Geological    Survey    of    New 

South  Wales,   VII,   pt.   Ill,  222-226.      Sydney,    1903. 
5B.    Dunstan. — Monazite   in    Queensland.      Pub.    no.    196   of   the   Geological    Survey   of 

Queensland,    11-16.      Brisbane,    1905. 


437 


438  MONAZITE. 

The  first  shipments  from  Brazil  sold  for  $425.00  a  ton;  in  1908  concen- 
trated monazite  sands  averaging  90%  monazite  sold  in  New  York 
at  $240.00  per  ton. 

PRODUCTION  OF   MONAZITE  IN  THE  U.  S.  IN   1908. 

North  Carolina 310,196  Ibs $37,224 

South    Carolina..  ..112.450  Ibs...  .    13,494 


439 


440  PYRITES. 


PYRITE  OR  IRON  PYRITES.1 

(Other  than  that  valuable  for  its  gold  or  other  metallic  contents.) 

Iron  pyrites  (FeS2):  iron  46.6,  sulphur  53.4,  is  a  hard  brassy-yellow 
mineral,  usually  with  a  metallic  lustre. 

Uses. 

Pyrites  often  carries  gold,  or  other  metals  of  value,  but  where  these 
are   absent  it  is   often  mined  for  the   sulphur  contained,   for  the 
manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid.      It  was  formerly  used  extensively 
for  the  manufacture  of  sulphur.      It  is  valueless  as  an  ore  of  iron 
on  account  of  the  sulphur  present. 
Used  in  the  manufacture  of  wood  pulp.2 
Pyrites  carrying  less  than  40%  sulphur  is  not  saleable. 

Occurrence. 

It  usually  occurs  in  veins  and  lenticular  masses,  but  it  is  not  limited 

to  these  modes  of  occurrence. 
Some  important  pyrite  deposits  are  bedded. 
It  is  often  associated  with  slates,  schists,  and  gneisses  in  the  eastern 

United   States,  but  it  also   occurs   associated  with  other   country 

rocks. 
It  is  common  in  many  mining  camps  of  the  country. 

Distribution. 

Pyrite  may  occur  in  rocks  of  any  geologic  age;  it  is  also  widely  dis- 
tributed geographically. 

The  principal  producing  countries  in  the  order  of  their  output  in  1907 
were:  France,  Norway,  United  States,4  Germany,  Spain3  and  Italy. 

JG.   P.   Merrill. — The   nonmetallic  minerals.      Rep.   U.    S.   National   Museum,    1899,    190- 

193.      Washington,   1901. 
H.    N.    Stokes. — On    pyrite    and    marcasite.       Bui.     186,    U.     S.     Geological    Survey. 

Washington,    1901. 
'Herman    Frasch. — Brimstone   versus    pyrite    for   wood-pulp   manufacture.      Engineering 

and   Mining   Journal,    LXXX,    1165-1166.      New   York,    1905. 

•A.  M.  Finlayson. — The  pyritic  deposits  of  Huelva,  Spain.  Economic  Geology,  V, 
357-372;  403-437.  1910. 

«R.  P.  Rothwell.— Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States  for  1886,  650-675. 
Washington,  1887. 

H.  J.  Davis.— Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States  for  1885,  506-517.  Washing- 
ton, 1886. 

E.  W.  Parker. — Seventeenth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  for  1895-96,  pt.  Ill 
(continued),  973-977.  Washington,  1896. 


441 


442  PYRITES. 

Pyrite  in  the  United  States. 

Pyrite  occurs  in  nearly  every  state.  It  is  mined  for  the  production 
of  sulphuric  acid  only  in  the  region  along  the  Atlantic  coast.5 

Virginia"  Louisa  and  Prince  William  counties. 

Massachusetts:  the  Davis  mines  in  Franklin  county  supplies  90%  of 
ore  mined  in  this  country. 

Deposits  occur  also  in  Vermont,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  North 
Carolina,7  South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Arkansas,  and  California. 

The  principal  pyrite  producing  states  in  1908  were:  Virginia,  Massa- 
chusetts, California,  Alabama,  and  Georgia. 

PRODUCTION    AND    IMPORTS    OF    PYRITES    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Production.  Imports 

Year  Tons  Value  Tons 

1895    101,495 $322,845 213,287 

1900   229,000 749,991 361,500 

1905   283,500 938,492 572,500 

1908    249,000. 857,113 749,000 

•A.   F.   Wendt. — The  pyrites   deposits  of  the  Alleghanies.      School  of   Mines   Quarterly. 
VII,    154-188,    218-235,    301-323.      New    York,    1886. 

•\V.    H.    Adams. — The    pyrites    deposits    of    Louisa    county,  "  Virginia.       Trans.     Amer. 
Inst.    Min.    Eng.,    XII,    527-535.      New   York,    1884. 

~.\.    Winslow. — Pyrites   deposits   of   North    Carolina.      Ann.    rep.    N.    C.    Agr.    Exp.    Sta. 
Raleigh,    1886. 


443 


444  FLUORITE. 


FLUORITE  OR  FLUORSPAR.1 

Fluorspar  is  calcium  fluoride  (CaF2):  (fluorine  48.9,  calcium  51.1); 
it  is  a  transparent  or  semi-transparent  mineral;  is  brittle  and  easily 
scratched  with  a  knife.  Yellow,  white,  purple,  or  light  green  are  its 
most  common  colors.  The  colors  are  often  banded.  It  is  usually 
found  crystallized  in  cubes. 

Uses. 

When  massive,  fluorspar  takes  a  fine  polish,  and  is  made  into  vases 

and  other  such  ornaments. 
The  principal  uses  are: 

For  the  manufacture  of  hydrofluoric  acid  for  which  only  the  purest 

qualities  are  used. 

As  a  flux  in  the  reduction  of  various  ores. 

It  is  especially  important  in  the  basic  open-hearth  process  of  steel 
manufacture  where  phosphorus  and  sulphur  are  removed  by  it. 
In  the  manufacture  of  opalescent  glass. 
Enameling. 

Occurrence. 

Fluorite  is  limited  to  no  particular  kind  of  rock  or  mode  of  occurence; 
it  occurs  sometimes  in  beds,  but  usually  as  a  veinstone  of  various 
ores  in  gneiss,  slate,  limestone,  and  sandstone.     It  frequently  con- 
stitutes the  entire  mineral  of  a  vein. 
Fluorite  occurs  in  many  localities  in  the  United  States,  but  all  that  is 

produced  comes  from  the  Illinois-Kentucky  localities. 
Illinois2:  the  production  of  the  state  in   1908  was  31,727  tons,  worth 

$172,838. 

In  Harden  county  in  southern  Illinois  are  extensive  deposits  of 
fluorite,  associated  with  galena  and  blende  in  veins  following 
fault  lines  in  Carboniferous  rocks. 

Kentucky3:  the  production  of  the  state  in  1908  was  6,323  tons,  worth 
$48,642. 

*S.    F.    Emmons. — Fluorspar — deposits   of   southern    Illinois.     Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 

Eng.,  XXI,   31-53.     New   York,   1893. 

\V.  M.  Eggleston. — The  occurrence  and  commercial  uses  of  fluorspar.  Trans.  Brit. 
Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  XXXV,  pt.  2,  271-284.  1908. 

2H.  F.  Bain. — Fluorspar  deposits  of  southern  Illinois.  Bui.  225,  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey,  505-511.  Washington,  1904. 

SE.  O.  Ulrich  and  W.  S.  Tangier  Smith. — The  lead,  zinc,  and  fluorspar  deposits  of 
western  Kentucky.  Professional  Paper  36,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey.  Wash- 
ington, 1905. 

F.  Julius  Fobs. — The  fluorspar  deposits  of  Kentucky.  Bui.  9,  Kentucky  Geological 
Survey.  Lexington,  1909. 

F.  Julius  Fohs. — The  fluorspar,  lead,  and  zinc  deposits  of  western  Kentucky. 
Economic  Geology,  V,  377-386.  1910. 


445 


446  FLUORITE. 

Crittenden   county  in   western   Kentucky,   south  of  the   Illinois   de- 
posits, has  large  vein  deposits,  similar  to  those  of  Illinois. 
The  fluorite  of  the  Illinois-Kentucky  localities  is  thought  by  Emmons 

to  be  derived  from  the  associated  limestones. 
Colorado   is   the   only   other   state   producing   a   considerable   amount 

of  fluorspar.      The  output  in  1907  was  3,300  tons. 

The   mineral    occurs   in  veins   cutting   granites    and    gneisses    of   pre- 
Cambrian  age.4 

«E.  F.   Burchard. — Fluorspar  and  cryolite.     Mineral   Resources  of  the  U.   S.   for   1908, 
pt.    II,    607-620.      Washington,    1909.       (Bibliography.) 


447 


448  FERTILIZERS. 


NATURAL   FERTILIZERS.1 
Mineral  Phosphates.2 

APATITE. 

The  mineral  phosphate,  apatite  (3Ca5P2O8  +  CaF2)  contains  theo- 
retically 42.3%  phosphoric  acid,  49.95%  lime,  and  7.75%  calcium 
fluoride.  Analyses  show  from  34  to  44%  phosphoric  acid. 

It  is  found  in  crystalline  and  stratified  rocks,  but  more  plentifully  in 
the  former,  especially  in  metamorphic  limestone,  in  gneiss  and 
schist. 

Apatite  is  both  massive  and  crystalline;  some  crystals  are  large  enough 
to  weigh  550  Ibs. 

The  Canadian  deposits3  in  Quebec  and  Ontario  are  in  metamorphosed 
Laurentian  rocks,  usually  associated  with  limestone. 

They  are  in  the  form  of  veins,  beds  and  irregular  pockets  from  an 
inch  to  many  feet  thick. 

Methods  of  mining  and  preparing. 

Apatite  lands  are  generally  of  little  value  for  other  purposes. 

Effect  of  Florida  phosphate  discoveries  on  the  Canadian  apatite 
business. 

PHOSPHORITE. 

Phosphorite  includes  the  vitreous,  earthy,  scaly,  and  fibrous  forms  of 
apatite. 

It  is  found  in  Spain,  Germany,  and  near  Bordeaux,  France,  in  veins 
and  pockets.  It  is  not  found  in  the  United  States. 

Rock  Phosphates.4 

Rock  phosphates  have  not  the  structure  or  composition  of  a  definite 
mineral 

1The   American   Fertilizer,    an    illustrated   magazine,    published   at    Philadelphia. 
G.   P.    Merrill. — The  nonmetallic  minerals.      Rep.   U.    S.   Nat.    Mus.    for    1899,   356-382. 
Washington,    1901.      (Bibliography.) 

2R.    A.    F.    Penrose    Jr. — Nature    and    origin    of    deposits    of    phosphate    of    lime.      Bui. 

46,    U.     S.     Geological     Survey.       Washington,     1888.       (This    work    contains    a 

full  bibliography  of  the  subject  up   to  the   date   of   its  publication.) 
Francis    Wyatt. — The    phosphates    of    America.       Fifth    edition.      New    York,     1894. 
C.    C.    Hoyer    Millar. — Florida,    South    Carolina,    and    Canadian    phosphates.      London, 

1892. 
H.  W.  Wiley. — Mineral  phosphates  as  fertilizers.     Year-book  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture, 

pp.   177-192.     Washington,    1895. 

*J.  F.   Torrance. — Report  on  apatite   deposits,   Ottawa   county,    Quebec.      Geol.    Survey 

of    Canada,    1884,    J.      Montreal,    1885. 
••David    Levat. — Etude    sur    1'industrie    des    phosphates    et    superphosphates.      Ann.    des 

Mines,    9me   ser.    VII,    5-260.      Paris,    1895. 


449 


450  FERTILIZERS. 

NODULAR    PHOSPHATES. 

The  nodules  are  worn  and  irregular  in  shape,  varying  in  weight  from 

a  few  grains  to  several  tons. 
Formed   by   erosion  of  the  marl   beds  and   the   concentration   of  the 

contained  nodules.8 
Artificial  concentration  at  Belgarde. 
Local  accumulations  or  concentrations  on  land  or  in  stream  beds  in 

South  Carolina. 

Worked  in  South  Carolina  only  since  1868. 
Dredged  from  streams  or  dug  from  open  pits. 
Burning  of  from  12  to  18%  of  water. 

Florida  has  the  phosphates  in  Eocene,  Miocene,  and  recent  deposits.8 
As  pockets  in   limestone. 
Prospected  by  shafts  and  bore  holes. 

Local    accumulations    of    loose    nodules    and    boulders    from    disin- 
tegrated rock  often  cover  several  acres;  5,000  acres,  purchased 
at  $100  per  acre,  had  80  feet  of  workable  phosphate  rock  over 
the   entire  area. 
Mined  in  open  cuts  and  pits. 
As  pebbles  in  existing  streams;  dredged  out. 
Tennessee.7 

The  brown  phosphates  are  of  Devonian  age. 
Horizontally  bedded  Ordovician  and  Carboniferous  rocks  are  locally 

rich  in  phosphates. 

Form  of  the  outcrop;  method  of  tracing  the  beds. 

Arkansas  has   beds   from   a  few   inches   to   6  feet  thick  composed  of 
phosphate  nodules  in  Paleozoic  conglomeratic  sandstones.'a 


BA.    Carnot. —    .     .     .    Remarques    sur    le    gisement    et    le    mode    de    formation    de    ces 
phosphates.      Ann.  des  Mines,  9me  ser.,  X,   137-231.      Paris,   1896. 

•W.    B.    Phillips. — Florida    land    pebble    phosphate.      Engineering    and    Mining   Journal, 

LXIX,    201-202.      New    York,    1900. 

E.   W.   Codington. — The   Florida   pebble  phosphates.     Trans.   Amer.    Inst.    Min.    Eng., 
XXV,   423-431.      New   York,    1896 

TT.   C.   Meadows  and  L.   Brown.     The  phosphates  of  Tennessee.     Trans.   Amer.   Inst. 

Min.    Eng.,    XXIV,    582-594.      New    York,    1895. 
C.    W.    Hayes.— The    white    phosphates    of    Tennessee.      Trans.    Amer.     Inst.     Min. 

Eng.,    XXV,     19-28.      1896. 
C.   W.   Hayes. — The   Tennessee   phosphates.      Seventeenth   ann.   rep.    U.    S.    Geological 

Survey,    pt.    II,    513-550.      Washington,    1896. 
J.     M.     Safford. — A    new    and    important    source    of    phosphate     rock    in    Tennessee. 

Amer.    Geologist,    XVIII,    261-264.       Minneapolis,    1896. 
H.    U.    Ruhm. — Phosphate    mining    in    Tennessee.      Engineering    and    Mining    Journal, 

LXXXIII,   522-526.      New   York,    1907. 
J.    M.    Safford. — Horizons   of  phosphate   rock   in   Tennessee.      Bui.    Geol.    Soc.    Amer., 

XIII,    14-15.      Rochester,    1902. 

TJ.    C.    Branner    and    J.    F.    Newsom.— The    phosphate    rocks    of    Arkansas.        Bui.    74, 
Ark.    Agr.    Exp.    Sta.      Little    Rock,    1902. 


451 


4-)2  FERTILIZERS. 

The  phosphates  of  Utah,8  Wyoming8  and  Idaho.8 

The  phosphates  occur  in  several  beds  ranging  from  a  few  inches 
to  10  feet  in  thickness  in  Upper  Carboniferous  shales  and  lime- 
stones. 

GUANO. 

Guano  is  bone  phosphate  of  lime,  with  hydrous  phosphates  and  im- 
purities. 


PHOSPHATE  ROCK 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  PI-IO3PMSTE 
ROCK  IN  THE.  UNITED  STATES  BY 
THE  THREE.  PRODUCING  STATES 
SINCE.  1867. 


Fig.    117. 

The  principal  fertilizer  works  are  at  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore,  and  Charleston. 


8W.  H.  Waggaman. — A  review  of  the  phosphate  fields  of  Idaho,  Utah,  and  Wyoming. 

Bui.  69,  Bureau  of  Soils.      U.  S.   Dept.  Agr.      Washington,   1910. 
II.    S.    Gale   and    R.    W.    Richards.— Preliminary    report   on   the    phosphate    deposits    in 

southeastern    Idaho    and    adjacent    parts    of    Wyoming    and    Utah.       Bui.    430H, 

U.    S.    Geological    Survey.      Washington,    1910. 


454  FERTILIZERS. 

Deposits  formed  of  the  excrement  of  birds.10 

Considerable  beds  on  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  Peru.11 

Owing  to  the  aridity  of  the  climate  these  deposits  are  not  washed 

off. 
Irregular  form  of  the  deposits  owing  to  the  surfaces  on  which  they 

are  made. 

Ammonia  and  phosphorus  the  fertilizing  ingredients. 
Beds  not  extensive,  and  the  supply  is  limited. 
Proposed  protection  to  the  guano-producing  birds. 

GREENSAND    MARLS." 

Greensands,  or  glauconite  marls,  are  soft  sedimentary  deposits  whose 
fertilizing  ingredients  are  phosphoric  acid  potash,  and  lime.  They 
occur  in  regular  approximately  horizontal  beds,  in  Cretaceous  rocks 
of  New  Jersey,13  in  the  Tertiary  of  North  Carolina,  in  the  Eocene 
Tertiary  of  South  Carolina,  in  the  Cretaceous  of  Arkansas,  and 
probably  throughout  the  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  areas  of  the 
south  and  southwest. 

Origin  of  the  lake  marls  of  Indiana14  and  Michigan. 
Value  of  marls  to  the  agriculture  of  New  Jersey. 
1,080,000  tons  dug  in  New  Jersey  in  1882. 
Method  of  using. 

Their  value  is  low  and  they  will  not  bear  much  transportation. 
Methods  of  treatment  of  greensands  at  Belgarde,  France,  to  save  phos- 
phatic nodules. 

GYPSUM. 

Gypsum,  or  "land  plaster,"  occurs  in  regular  stratified  beds. 

It  is  quarried  and  crushed  before  it  is  put  on  the  market. 

Extensively  quarried  in  New  York,  Xova  Scotia,  Sandusky,  Ohio,  Michi- 
gan, and  Kansas. 

In  California  there  are  pockety  deposits  in  the  semi-arid  portions  of  the 
San  Joaquin  valley  probably  deposited  by  ancient  springs. 

New  Mexico  has  extensive  dunes  of  gypsum  sands  on  the  Tularosa  desert.15 

Utah  has  similar  deposits." 

10R.   E.   Coker. — Regarding   the   future  of  the  guano   industry   and  the  guano-producing 

birds  of  Peru.      Science,   new.   ser.,   XXVIII,    58-64.     New  York,    1908. 
UW.   J.    Wharton. — Notes   on    Clipperton   Atoll.      Quarterly   Journal   Geol.    Soc.,    LIV, 

228-229.     London,    1898. 
J.    D.    Hague. — On    phosphatic    guano   islands   of   the   Pacific   Ocean.      Amer.    Journal 

Sci.,    LXXXIV,    224-243.      New   Haven,    1862. 
A.    J.    Duffield. — Peru    in    the    guano    age.      London,    1877. 
"Charles    A.     Davis. — A    contribution    to    the    natural    history    of    marl.      Journal    of 

Geology,    VIII,    485-497.      Chicago,    1900.     A   second  contribution   to   the   natural 

history    of    marl.      IX,    491-506.      Chicago,    1901. 

13W.    B.    Clark. — Origin   and  classification   of  the   greensands  of   New   Jersey.      Journal 


B.    Clark. — Origin   and  classification   of  the 
of  Geology,   II,    161-177.      Chicago,    1894. 


4W.  S.  Blatchley  and  G.  H.  Ashley. — The  lakes  of  northern  Indiana  and  their 
associated  marl  deposits.  25th  ann.  rep.  Dept.  of  Geol.  and  Nat.  History  of 
Indiana,  31-321.  Indianapolis,  1901. 

5E.  D.  Johnson. — The  white  sands  of  New  Mexico.     Out  West,  Oct.,  1903,  pp.  385-387. 


455 


456  PRECIOUS    STONES. 


PRECIOUS  STONES.1 

Precious  stones  are  no  particular  kind  of  stones ;  the  value  of  those  used 
as  such  is  a  matter  of  fancy  and  fashion. 

Interest  in  precious  stones ;  amount  invested  in  precious  stones  by  indi- 
viduals in  the  United  States. 

The  essential  qualities  of  precious  stones  are  hardness,  beauty  of  color, 
and  rarity. 

Examples:    diamond,  h.   10;   oriental  ruby,  h.  9;   oriental  emerald,  h.   9. 

DIAMONDS. 

Uses. 

Brilliants. 

Glass  cutting. 

Polishing  powder. 

Diamond  drills  of  bort  or  carbonado. 

Occurrence  and  Origin.2 

Diamonds  are  crystals  of  pure  carbon. 

They  are  found  in  placers,  in  conglomerates,  and  in  rocks  in  place. 

Theory   of   their   plant   origin ;    graphite    found    in   the    diamond   bearing 

rocks  of  Brazil. 
Theory  of  their  igneous  or  metamorphic  origin. 

Possible  gaseous  origin  of  the  carbon. 
Common  sizes ;  sizes  of  famous  diamonds. 
Artificial  production  of  diamonds.3 

>E.  W.  Streeter. — Precious  stones  and  gems;   their  history;  sources  and  characteristics. 

Fifth   ed.      London,    1892. 

George  F.  Kunz.- — Gems  and  precious  stones  of  North  America.      New  York,  1892. 
George    F.    Kunz.— Precious   stones.      Twentieth    ann.    rep.    U.    S.    Geological    Sur.,    pt. 

VI    (continued),    557-602.       Washington,    1899. 
G.    F.    Kunz.- — Gems,    jewelers'    materials   and    ornamental    stones    of    California.      Bui. 

37,    Cal.    State    Min.    Bureau.      Sacramento,    1905. 

O.   C.    Farrington. — Gems  and  gem  minerals.   XII   +   229  pp.   4  q.   ill.     Chicago,    1903. 
D.   B.    Sterrett. — Precious   stones.      Mineral   Resources  of  the   United   States   for   1908, 

II,    805-859.      Washington,    1909. 

SO.   A.    Derby. — Brazilian   evidence   on    the   genesis   of   the   diamond.      Journal    Geology 

VI,   121-146.      Chicago,    1898. 

Wm.    Crookes.— Diamonds.      Nature,    LVI,    325-331.      London,    1897. 
H.  W.  Turner. — The  occurrence  and  origin  of  diamonds  in  California.     Amer.   Geol., 

XXIII,    182-191.      Minneapolis,    1899. 
W.    H.    Hudleston. — On    a    recent    hypothesis    with    respect    to    the    diamond    rock    of 

South   Africa.      Mineralogical    Mag.,   V,    199-210.      Philadelphia,    1884. 

•On   the   artificial   production   of   the   diamond.       Amer.    Tour.    Sci.,   CLIII,    243.       New 

Haven,    1897. 

Annales   de    Chimie,    7me   ser.,    VIII,    466.      1896. 
Comptes    Rendus   CXXIII,    206-210,    277.      Paris,    1896. 


458  DIAMONDS. 

Diamonds  found  in  commercial  quantities  only  in  India,   Borneo,  Brazil, 

South  Africa,  New  South  Wales,4  and  Arkansas. 

Only  a  few  have  been  found  in  the  United  States  outside  of  Arkansas.5 
India.' 

Those  of  India  are  the  oldest  known  diamond  mines.     They  supplied 

Europe  until  the  discovery  of  diamonds  in  Brazil,  about  1729. 
The  mines  are  all  south  of  the  Ganges. 
The  most  famous  mines  are  those  of  Panna  and  of  Parteal,  near 

Golconda,  the  old  diamond  market. 

The  stones  are  found  in  two  deposits;    (1)    in  a  conglomerate  at  the 
base  of  the  pre-Cambrian  Karnul  beds ;    (2)    in   recent  stream  de- 
posits derived  in  part  from  the  Karnul  conglomerate. 
The  Karnul  conglomerates  and  their  diamonds  are  supposed  to  be  de- 
rived from  earlier  rocks.     Indian  diamonds  are  not  known  to  have 
been  found  in  their  original  matrix. 
Crude  methods  of  working  the  conglomerates. 
Relations  of  structure  to  the  occurrence  of  diamonds. 
Possibilities  of  improved  methods  of  work. 
Borneo. 

Diamonds  have  been  found  in  several  islands  of  Oceanica,  but  Borneo 

has  been  the  only  one  to  produce  them  in  quantity. 

They  are  found  there  mostly  in  river  gravels  overlying  Tertiary,  and 
in  smaller  quantities  in  rocks  in  place.    The  rocks  of  the  region  are 
schists,  granites,  and  other  igneous  rocks. 
1836  to  1848  yield  averaged  $36,179  worth  per  year. 
1876  to  1880  yield  averaged  $63,750  worth  per  year. 
Brazil.'1 

Diamonds  were  discovered  in  the  gold  mines  in  1727  or  1728. 

Artificial   diamonds.     Jour.    Franklin   Institute.      CXLVI,   236-237.      Philadelphia,    1898. 

4E.  F.  Pittmann. — The  mineral  resources  of  New  South  Wales,  373-397.  Sydney, 
1901. 

e\V.  Tassin. — Descriptive  catalogue  of  the  collections  of  gems  in  the  U.  S.  Nat. 
Museum.  Rep.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.  for  1900,  pp.  473-670.  Washington,  1902. 
Illustrated.  (Bibliography.) 

G.  F.  Kunz  and  H.  S.  Washington. — Diamonds  in  Arkansas.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min. 
Eng.,  XXXIX,  169-176.  New  York,  1909. 

J.  C.  Branner. — Some  facts  and  corrections  regarding  the  diamond  region  of  Ar- 
kansas. Engineering  and  Mining  Journal.  LXXXVII,  371-2.  New  York, 
1909. 

<R.   F.   Burton. — The  diamond  in  India.       Quar.   Jour.    Sci.   XIII,   351-360.       London, 

1876. 
V.    Ball. — A   manual   of   the   geology   of   India,    pt.    Ill,    economic   geology,    pp.    1-50. 

Calcutta,    1881. 
V.   Ball. — On   the  mode  of  occurrence  and   distribution   of  diamonds  in   India.       Jour. 

Roy.    Geol.    Soc.    Ireland    VI    New    Ser.    10-48.       Edinburgh,    1886. 

7John  Mawe. — Travels  in  the  interior  of  Brazil.      Philadelphia,   1816. 
H.   Jacobs  and   N.    Chatrian. — Monographic   du  diamant.       Paris,    1880. 
».M.    E.    Boutan. — Encyclopedic    chimique    de    M.    Fremy.       II.    Metalloides    Diamant. 
Paris,    1886. 


459 


460  DIAMONDS. 

Brazil  was  then  a  Portuguese  colony;  the  diamond  lands  were  appro- 
priated by  the  crown  and  worked  by  contractors  and  later  by  the 
royal  treasury. 

Total  production  of  Brazilian,  diamonds  by  the  best  possible  estimates 
from  1728  to  1885,  12,000,000  carats,  or  about  two  and  a  half  tons, 
worth  about  $100,000,000. 
Geographically  the  diamonds  are  confined  to  limited  areas  in  the  states 

of  Bahia,  Minas  Geraes,  and  Matto  Grosso. 
Geologically  they  are  found  chiefly  and  almost  exclusively  in  the  gravels 

of  ancient  or  modern  streams. 
Methods  of  working  on  a  small  scale. 
Heavy  work  of  turning  the  streams. 

Ancient  methods  used  for  dams,  flumes,  and  cleaning  up. 
The  visit  of  John  Mawe  in  1809. 
Possibilities  of  improved  methods  of  work. 
Camara's  use  of  machinery;  why  it  failed. 
Condition  of  the  common  roads. 
Character  of  the  labor  available. 

Black  diamonds  or  carbonados  are  found  only  in  the  state  of  Bahia. 
They  occur  in  pinkish  quartzites  and  in  the  soils  derived  therefrom.* 
Their  uses  in  diamond  drills. 
Demand  produced  by  boring  machines. 

British  Guiana. 

Magaruni  river  district  produced  $50,000  worth  of  diamonds  in  1902. 

South  Africa.9 

Effect  of  the  discovery  of  African  diamonds   in   1865   upon  the  other 

diamond  mines. 
Geology  :  peridotite  dike  in  Carboniferous  black  shales.10 


•J.  C.  Branner.  —  The  economic  geology  of  the  diamond-bearing  highlands  of  the 
interior  of  the  state  of  Bahia,  Brazil.  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal, 
LXXXVII,  981-986,  1029-1033.  New  York,  1909. 


»G.   G.  Hubbard.—  Africa  since   1888.       Nat.   Geogr.   Mag.,  VII,    161-162.       May,    1896. 
T.    Reunert.  —  Diamonds   and   gold   in   South   Africa.       Johannesburg,    1893. 
Wm.   Crookes.  —  The   diamond   mines   of  Kimberly.       Nature,    LV,   519-523.       London, 

1897. 

H.   Jacobs  et  N.   Chatrian.  —  Monographic   du  diamant.       Paris,    1880. 
G.    F.    Williams.  —  The    diamond   mines   of   South    Africa.       Trans.    Amer.    Inst.    Min. 

Eng.,   XV,   392-417.       New   York,    1887. 
A.   A.   Julian.  —  A   bibliography    of   the    diamond    fields   of    South    Africa.       Economic 

Geology,   IV,   453-469.      Aug.,   1909;   and  V,   64-65.      January,    1910. 

X*T.    G.    Bonney.  —  The    parent-rock    of    the    South    African    diamond.        Nature    LX, 

620-621.      London,  1899. 

F.  W.  Voit.  —  Kimberlite  rock  and  the  origin  of  diamonds.      Engineering  and  Mining 
Journal,    LXXXVII,    789-791.       April    17,    1909. 
5.    Harger.  —  The    diamond    pipes    and   fissures    of    Soutl 
Soc.   S.  Africa.      VIII,   110-134.      Johannesburg,   1906. 


461 


462 


DIAMONDS. 


Supposed  influence  of  the  shales  on  the  formation  of  the  diamonds. 
Effect  of  depth  on  African  diamonds. 

Cracking  after  removal. 
The  use  of  machinery  favored  by  the  local  nature  of  the  deposits.11 

"R.   A.   F.  Penrose,  Jr. — The  Premier   diamond  mine,   Transvaal,   South   Africa.       Eco- 
nomic  Geology   II,   275-284.       1907. 

F.    H.    Hatch. — A    description    of    the    big    diamond    recently    found    in    the    Premier 
mine,  TransvaaJ.       Geological  Magazine,  new  series,  II,  170-172.      London,   1905. 


Fig.    118. — Vertical    section    through    the    Kimberly    diamond   mine,    South    Africa. 
(Reunert.) 


463 


464  PRECIOUS    STONES. 

OTHER    PRECIOUS    STONES. 

Corundum.12 

(Oxide  of  aluminum  (A12O3)  :  oxygen  47.1,  aluminum  52.9.) 
The  varieties  of  corundum  differ  chiefly  in  colors  due  to  small  amounts 

of  the  metallic  oxides.     These  varieties  are : 
Sapphire.13   blue,    from    Burma,14    and  Queensland.15 
Oriental  emerald  is  a  green  sapphire.16 
Oriental  ruby  is  red. 

Artificially  made  rubies.17 
Topaz,  yellow." 
Oriental  amethyst,  purple. 

These  stones  come  chiefly  from  Burma,  Ceylon  and  Siam,  where  they 
occur  as  crystals  in  limestone,  or  derived  from  it  by  disintegration. 

Turquoise. 

Is  a  hydrous  phosphate  of  aluminum  containing  water  20.6,  alumina  46.8, 
and  phosphorous  pentoxide  32.6.  It  usually  contains  some  copper 
and  iron. 

Color,   from   sky-blue  to   greenish-gray. 
Occurrence.19 

Oriental  turquoise  is  found  in  thin  seams  in  igneous  rock  in  Persia. 
Egyptian  turquoise  comes  from  Carboniferous  sandstones  and  with  age 

changes  from  blue  to  green. 
American  turquoise  is  found  in  three  states. 
At  Los  Cerrillos  and  Burro  Mountain,  New  Mexico.20 

"J.    H.    Pratt. — -The    occurrence   and    distribution    of    corundum    in    the    United    States. 
Bui.    180  U.   S.   Geological  Survey.       Washington,   1901. 

13W    H.    Weed. — Yogo    sapphire    mines    (Fergus    county,    Montana).       20th    Ann.    Rep. 
U.   S.   Geological   Survey,   part  III,   454-459.       Washington,    1900. 

14C.    B.    Brown    and    J.    W.    Judd. — The    rubies    of    Burma    and    associated    minerals. 
Philosophical   Trans.   Roy.   Soc.    CLXXXVII,    151-228.       London,    1896. 

"B.   Dunstan. — The  sapphire  fields  of  Anakie.       Queensland,    1902. 

"V.    Ball. — On   the    newly    discovered    sapphire   mines    in   the   Himalayas.       Jour.    Roy. 
Geol.   Soc.   Ireland.      VII,  49-51.       1885. 

"M.    A.    Verneuil.- — La    reproduction    artificielle     du    rubis     par     fusion.        Ann.     de 
Chimie  et   de  Phys.   8me  ser.   II.       Paris,    1904. 

18O.  A.  Derby. — On  the  mode  of  occurrence  of  topaz  near  Ouro  Preto,  Brazil.      Amer. 
Jour.   Sci.,   CLXI,  25-34.      New  Haven,    1901. 

19T.   Barren. — The  topography  and  geology  of  the   Sinai   Peninsula.       209-212.       Cairo, 

1907. 
*°G.     D.     Reid. — The    Burro    mountain    turquoise    district.        Engineering    and    Mining 

Journal,   LXXV,   786.       New   York,    1903. 
E.    R.    Zalinski. — Turquoise    in    the    Burro    Mts.,    New   Mexico.       Economic    Geology, 

II,    464-492.       1907. 

D.   W.   Johnson.— The  geology  of   the   Cerillos  Hill,   New   Mexico.       School  of   Mines 
Quarterly,   XXIV,   456-500.       New   York,    1903. 


465 


466  PRECIOUS    STONES. 

In  Cochise  county,  Arizona." 

In  the  western  part  of  Kern  county,  California. 

Garnet. 

The  precious  garnet  is  almandite  (silica  36.2,  alumina  20.5,  iron  protoxide 
43.3)  and  pyrope  (silica  44.8,  alumina  25.4,  magnesia  29.8). 

Several  minerals  are  included  under  this  head ;  the  finest  of  them  are 
from  India ;  fire  pyrope  from  the  Kimberly  diamond  mines,  South 
Africa. 

Jade.22 

Nephrite,  a  variety  of  amphibole  with  little  or  no  aluminum. 
Jadeite. 

Beryl. 

Aqua-marine,   emerald,   and   oriental   cat's-eyes   are  varieties   of  beryl. 
The   former   occur   as   isolated   crystals   and   in   geodes   in   clay   slate   in 
Colombia ;  in  Brazil,  Hindostan,  Ceylon,  and  Siberia. 

Tourmaline. 

Rubellite   is   a  pink   variety   of  tourmaline ;    indicolite   is   a   blue   variety. 
Brazilian  emerald  is  a  green  variety  of  tourmaline. 

Quartz. 

Many  beautiful  gems  made  from  quartz  and  from  various  minerals  be- 
longing to  the  quartz  group.  Extensive  use  of  common  clear  quartz 
and  gold  quartz. 

Under  crystalline  quartz  belong  amethyst,  cairngorm,  cat's-eye,  false 
topaz,  and  many  others. 

Under  cryptocrystalline  quartz  are  agate  from  southern  Brazil/4  moss 
agate,  chalcedony,  carnelian,  jasper,  onyx  (used  for  cameos),  silici- 
fied  wood  or  wood-agate.23 

Opal  is  silica  with  varying  amount  of  water.26 
Fire  opal27  from  Mexico  and  New  South  Wales.28 

MA.   B.    Frenzel. — A   turquoise   deposit   in    Mohave   county,   Arizona.       Engineering   and 
Mining  Journal,  LXVI,   697.       New   York,    1898. 

22S.  E.  Easter. — Jade.      Nat.  Geographic  Magazine,  XIV,  9-17.      Washington,  1903. 

"H.   H.    Smith. — Amer.    Naturalist,    XVII,    1012-1013.       Philadelphia,    1883. 
On  the  formation  of  agate,  see  Bischof's  Chemical  geology,  I,  53-54.      London,   1854. 

"Angelo   Heilprin. — The   stone   forest   of    Florssant.     Pop.    Sci.    Monthly,    XLIX,   479- 
484.       New   York,    1896. 

MR.    M.    Macdonald. — The    opal    formations    of    Australia.       Scot.    Geographical    Mag. 

XX,    253-261.       Edinburgh,    1904. 

C.  F.  V.  Jackson. — The  opal-mining  industry  and  the  distribution  of  opal  de- 
posits in  Queensland.  Geol.  Sur.  Rep.  177.  Brisbane,  1902. 

"G.    F.    Kunz. — Gems    and    precious    stones    of    Mexico.        Trans.     Amer.    Inst.    Min. 
Eng.  XXXII,   55-93.      New   York,    1902. 

*»E.    P.    Pittmann. — The   mineral   resources   of   New    South   Wales,    398-405.       Sydney, 
1901. 


467 


468  PRECIOUS   STONES. 

Pearls.29 

Pearls  are  not  stones,  although  grouped  with  precious  stones  commer- 
cially. "Pearls  are  lustrous  concretions,  consisting  essentially  of 
carbonate  of  lime  interstratified  with  animal  membrane,  found  in 
the  shells  of  certain  mollusks."  Kunz.80 

Probably  formed  about  foreign  bodies  in  the  mantle. 

Pearls  of  commerce  are  from  bivalve  shells,  most  of  them  from  Melea- 
grina,  the  pearl  oyster.  They  are  furnished  also  by  some  fresh- 
water shells,  Unio,  Anadon,  etc.,  in  Wisconsin  and  throughout  the 
Mississippi  valley.  La  Paz,  Lower  California,  is  the  center  of  the 
pearl-fishery  in  America.31 

Venezuela.82 

Ceylon.33 

*»G.  F.   Kunz. — On  pearls    ....   as  ornaments,   etc.       Bui.  U.   S.   Fish   Com.    XIII, 

439-454.      Washington,    1907. 
WH.   L.   Jameson. — On  the  origin   of   pearls.       Proc.   Zool.    Soc.   I,   140-166.       London, 

1902. 
"George    F.    Kunz. — Gems    and    precious    stones    of    North    America.        New    York, 

1892. 
SIPearl  fisheries  in   Venezuela. — Engineering  and   Mining  Journal,   LXXII,   37.       New 

York,   1901. 

«\V.   A.   Herdman. — Report  to   the   Governor   of   Ceylon   on   the  pearl-fishing   industry 
of  the  gulf  of  Manaar.      Roy.  Soc.  London,  1905. 


469 


470 


PRECIOUS    STONES. 


PRECIOUS  STONES 

THE. 

STONES  IMPORTED  AND 
FOUND  INTHE  UNITED 
STATES  SINCE   1867. 


Fig.   119. 


471 


472  SOILS. 


SOILS.1 

Residuary  Soils. 
Decay  of  rocks  in  place.2 

Varying  character  and  fertility  according  to  the  rock  matrix. 
Lake  and  sea-bottom  soils  of  recent  date. 
The  Tertiary  and  Pleistocene  of  the  Gulf  States. 

Origin  of  these  sediments. 
The   lake  bottoms   of   Pleistocene   times. 

The  San  Joaquin  and  Santa  Clara  valleys. 

Adobes  from  three  sources : 

1.  Rocks  decayed  in  place. 

2.  Washed   down   from  such   decayed  beds. 

3.  Wind-blown.8 

Talus  Soils. 

Talus  from  cliff  and  rock  slopes. 
Soil   by  decay  of  rock   fragments. 

Alluvial  Soils. 
Silts  deposited  by  water. 
Origin  of  the  alluvial  silts. 

Fertility  of  river  bottoms  due  partly  to  organic  matter  in  the  silts. 
Silting  up  of  deltas  and  overflow  deposits. 

JThe  soils  of  Tennessee.  Bui.  Agr.  Expr.  Station  of  Tenn.,  Sept.  1897,  X,  no.  3. 
Knoxville,  1897. 

F.  H.  King. — The  soil:  its  nature,  relations,  etc.      New  York,  1895. 

N.  S.  Shaler. — The  origin  and  nature  of  soils.  Twelfth  ann.  rep.  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey,  pp.  213-345.  Washington,  1892. 

E.  A.  Smith. — A  general  discussion  of  the  composition,  mode  of  formation,  and  prop- 
erties of  soils.  Geol.  Sur.  of  Alabama  for  1881  and  1882,  pp.  1-154.  Mont- 
gomery, 1883. 

E.  W.  Hilgard.— Soils.      New  York,    1906. 

M.  Whitney. — Field  operations  of  the  divisions  of  soils,  1900.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri., 
1900.  Second  rep.  Washington,  1901. 

F.  K.    Cameron    and    T.    M.    Bell. — The    mineral    constituents    of    the    soil    solution. 

U.   S.   Dept.   Agri.     Bui.   30.      Washington,    1905. 

2T.    L.   Watson. — Weathering   of   granitic   rocks   of   Georgia.       Bui.    Geol.    Soc.    Amer. 

XII,   93-108.       Rochester,    1901. 
E.    W.    Hilgard. — Some   peculiarities    of   rock   weathering   and    soil    formation    in   the 

arid   and   humid    regions.       Amer.    Jour.    Sci.    CLXXI,    261-269.       New    Haven, 

1906. 

•I.  C.  Russell. — Subaerial  deposits  of  the  arid  regions  of  North  America.  Geol.  Maga- 
zine, VI,  289-295,  342-350.  London,  1889. 


473 


474  SOILS. 

Glacial  Soils.4 
Origin  of  the  glacial  drift. 

Variety  and  mingling  of  its  ingredients,  and  the  effect  upon  soil  fertility. 
Illustrated  by  contrasts  in   Ohio,   Indiana,   Kentucky,  and   Wisconsin. 

Glacio-alluvial  Soils. 
Silts   draining  from  glaciers. 

Modifications   of  Soils. 
After  formation  soils  are  variously  modified  by  changes  of  tepemerature, 

by  rain,  plants,  and  animals. 

Leaching  action  of  acidulated  waters ;  the  origin  of  "buckshot"  soils. 
Wind-blown  accumulations  as  illustrated  by  the  loess  deposits  of  China 

and  of  the   Mississippi  valley;"  adobe  of  the  deserts. 
Accumulations    of   volcanic    ashes    that    decay    rapidly,    as    illustrated    in 

Bolivia,   Italy,   and   other   regions   about  volcanoes. 
Swamps,  marshes,  peat-bogs,  prairies.' 
The  work  of  burrowing  animals,  gophers,  squirrels,  ants,7  and  earthworms 

and  their  influence  on  soils. 
The  waste  of  soils  by  washing.8 
Alkali  soils. 

Origin  of  the  alkali.9 
The  fertility  of  soils.10 
The  exhaustion  of  soils." 

4Frank    Leverett. — Soils    of    Illinois.        Extract    from    final    report    Illinois    Board    of 
World's   Fair   Com.   Springfield,    189S. 

BB.   Shimek. — The  genesis  of  loess,   a   problem  in   plant  ecology.       Proc.   la     \cad     Sci 
XV,   57-75.       1909. 

*Leo    Lesquereux. — On    the    origin    and    formation    of    prairies.       Economical    Geol.    of 
Illinois,    I,    178-190.       Springfield.    1882. 

TJ.    C.    Branner. — Decomposition    of    rocks    in    Brazil.        Bui.    Geol.    Soc.    of    America, 

VII.   295-304.       Rochester,    1896. 

Charles  Darwin. — Vegetative  mould  and  earth-worms.      New  York,  1882. 
J.   C.    Branner. — Geologic  work  of  ants  in   tropical   America.       Bui.   Geol.    Soc.   Amer., 

XXI,   449-496.       New   York,    1910. 

"Washed    soils.       How    to    prevent   and    reclaim   them.       Farmers'    Bui.,    no.    20,    U.    S. 

Dept.   of  Agriculture.       Washington,    1894. 

~N.   S.   Shaler. — The  economic  aspects  of  soil  erosion.       National  Geographic  Magazine, 
VII,   328-338.      Washington,    1896. 

*E.    W.    Hilgard. — A    report    on    the    relations    of    soil    to    climate.        Bui.    3,    Weather 

Bureau,   U.    S.    Dept.   of  Agriculture.       Washington,    1892. 
M.    Whitney    and    T.    H.    Means. — The    alkali    soils    of    the    Yellowstone    valley.       Bui. 

14,  Div.  of  Soils,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.      Washington,   1898. 
E.    W.    Hilgard. — Nature,    value    and    utilization    of    alkali    lands.        Bui.    128,    Univ. 

Calif.   College  of  Agri.       Sacramento,    1900. 

T.   T.    Read. — The   alkali   deposits   of  Wyoming.       American   Geologist,   XXXIV,    164- 

169.       Minneapolis,    1904. 
10E.    W.    Hilgard. — The    chemistry    of    soils    as    related    to    crop    production.        Science, 

New  Ser.,   XVIII,   755-760.       New  York,   1903. 
M.    Whitney   and    F.    K.    Cameron. — The    chemistry    of   the    soil    as    related    to    crop 

production.      Bureau  of  Soils.      Bui.  22,  Washington,   1903. 
"M.   Whitney.— Exhaustion  and  abandonment   of  soils.       Rep.   70,   U.   S.   Dept.   Agri.,* 

Washington,    1901. 


475 


476 


WATER. 


WATER.1 

A  country's  water  supply  is  derived:  (1)  directly  from  rain;  (2)  from 
lakes;  (3)  from  rivers;  (4)  from  springs;  (5)  from  wells,  ordinary 
and  artesian  wells. 

Effect  of  andesite  and  other  porous  rocks  on  water  supply. 
Lakes:    Size,  depth,  character,  and  distribution  of  lakes  is  largely  con- 
trolled by  geology. 
Rivers:    Location  and  character  are  determined  by  the  geologic  structure 

of  the  region. 
Effect  of  rapids  and  water-falls;  sources  of  water  power;  detriment  to 

navigation. 

Utilization  of  muddy  water  after  filtering.    Effect  of  alum,  acids,  alkalies, 
heat,  cold,  etc.,  upon  muddy  waters. 

Underground  Waters.2 

Relation  of  underground  waters  to  geologic  structure. 
Springs:    Location,  character,  and   size  are  determined  by  geologic  and 
structural  relations  of  the  rocks. 


Fig.   120. — Diagram  illustrating  the  area  of  an  outcrop 

dip. 


ith   the   angle  of  the 


'Water  supply  papers  of  the  U.   S.  Geological  Survey,  published  at  Washington  since 

1897. 

Charles   E.    De    Ranee.— The    water   supply   of   England    and    Wales.       London,    1882. 

Ann.   rep.    Geol.    Survey   of   Ar- 


J.    C.    Branner. — The   mineral   waters   of   Arkansas, 
kansas  for   1891,   I.       Little   Rock,    1892. 


Paul    Schweitzer. — The    mineral    waters    of    Missouri.       Ann.    rep.    Geol.    Survey    of 

Missouri,    1890-92,  III.      Jefferson   City,    1892. 
Water   supplies   and   inland   waters   of    Massachusetts.       Part   I,    rep.    on    water   supply 

and  sewerage,   1887-90.      By  the  State  Board  of  Health,  Boston,   1890. 
W.  J.   McGee. — The  potable  waters  of  the  eastern  United   States.       Fourteenth   ann. 

rep.  U.   S.  Geological   Survey,   pt.   II,   5-47.      Washington,    1894. 
H.  B.   Woodward. — The  geology  of  water  supply.      London,    1910. 

ZM.  L.  Fuller. — Underground  water  investigations  in  the  U.  S.  Economic  Geology  I, 
554-569.  June,  1906. 

Chas.  Morris. — Subterranean  waters.  Jour.  Frank.  Inst,  CLI,  182-194.  Philadel- 
phia, 1901. 


477 


Fig.    121. — Diagram    illustrating   the    interstices    left   between    pebbles. 


Fig.    122. — Geological    map    of    the    region    about    Eureka    Springs,    Arkansas,    showing 
the   emergence    of   springs   at    a   constant   geologic    horizon. 


479 


480 


WATER. 


Springs  are  of  all  sizes,  from  the  smallest  trickling  streams  to  those 
of  great  volume.  Mammoth  Spring  of  Arkansas  discharges  9,000 
barrels  per  minute. 

Underground  streams  ;3  traced  by  the  use  of  fluoresceine.* 

Cities  and  towns  often  owe  their  location  to  springs. 

All    spring   waters   contain   more   or    less   mineral   matter   in    solution. 

Some  of  them  are  used  for  medicinal  purposes.5 

Hard    water    of    limestone    regions. 

Soft  water  of  granite  and  sandstone   regions. 

Mineral  springs  as  health  and  pleasure  resorts. 

The  temperatures  of  spring  waters  vary  from  extremely  cold  to  boiling 

hot. 

Hot  springs. 
Geysers. 

Common  wells:    Wells,   except  for  large  cities,   are  the  chief  source  of 

water  supply  for  domestic  purposes. 
Ordinary  wells,  especially  in  cities,  are  liable  to  surface  contamination 

and  cannot  furnish  a  great  volume  of  water. 
Why  some  wells  yield  soft  water  and  others  near  by  yield  hard  water. 


Clay,  •    .  :^^^. 


;  r-^rf^.-- .-  •'•:  Sah'd-:": ::•' : :;' Y  :^.^.-- 
'.  :.-M^^2i^^^\f^i\  V/  v  V  :•'•  V:!| 


Fig.   123. — Vertical  section  In  the  chalk  region  of  southwest  Arkansas,   showing  why 
the  waters  ot  some  01  the  wells  aie  hard  while  others  are  soft. 

Why  water  is  not  always  found  at  the  same  level  in  regions  covered 

by  glacial  drift. 
Relations  of  well  waters  to  structural  geology. 

*C.  S.  Slichter. —  (The  motions  of  underground  waters.)      Water  supply  and  irrigation 

paper   no.   67.       U.   S.    Geological   Survey,   Washington,    1902.       Also   paper   no. 

140,  Washington,  1905. 
•R.    B.   Dole. — The   use   o_f   fluorescein   in   the   study   of  underground   waters.       Water 

supply    and   irrigation    papers    no.    160,    pp.    73-85.       U.    S.    Geological    Survey, 

Washington,    1906. 

•A.   C.   Peale. — The   natural   mineral   waters  of  the   United    States.       Fourteenth   ann. 
rep.  U.   S.   Geological  Survey,  pt.   II,  49-88.      Washington,   1894. 


481 


WATER. 


Fig.   124. — Section  showing  the  location   for  wells  with   reference  to  geologic  structure. 

Artesian  wells"  are  usually  deep  wells  that  flow  at  the  surface,  or  in 
which  the  water  rises  even  if  it  does  not  overflow. 

Conditions  favorable  for  artesian  wells :  a  porous  stratum,  below  an 
impervious  stratum,  with  an  exposed  edge  higher  than  the  mouth 
of  the  well;  no  outlet  lower  than  the  mouth  of  the  well  sufficient 
to  allow  the  escape  of  the  water ;  sufficient  rainfall  at  the  exposed 
edge  of  the  water-bearing  bed  to  completely  saturate  the  whole  bed. 
The  water-bearing  stratum  may  be  either  porous  or  fissured. 

Uncertainties  in  boring  for  artesian  water  due  to  the  variations  in  the 
character  of  the  water-bearing  bed,  variations  in  the  overlying  bed, 
and  to  possible  faults  that  permit  the  escape  of  the  water  or  prevent 
its  reaching  the  well.  The  general  principles  are  simple,  but  the 
problems  are  often  complex. 

Special  cases  require  special  study. 

Artesian  waters  are  seldom  obtained  from  crystalline  rocks,  but  some- 
times water  is  obtained  from  the  joints  in  them,  as  at  York,  Maine.7 

Artesian  water  is  not  confined  to  rocks  of  any  particular  age.  In  Cali- 
fornia they  are  more  abundant  in  the  later  formations.8 

«G.   K.   Gilbert. — The   underground   water   of  the   Arkansas   valley   in   eastern   Colorado. 

Seventeenth  ann.   rep.  U.   S.   Geological   Survey,   pt.    II,   557-601.       Washington, 

1896. 
N.   H.   Darton.— Preliminary  report  on   artesian   waters  of  a  portion  of  the   Dakotas. 

Seventeenth   ann.    rep.   U.   S.    Geological    Survey,   pt.    II,   603-694.       Washington, 

1896. 
C.   C.   Vermeule. — Report  on   water   supply.       Geol.    Survey   of  New  Jersey,   vol.    III. 

Trenton,    1894. 
N.    H.    Darton. — New    developments    in    well    boring    and    irrigation    in    eastern    South 

Dakota,    1896.       Eighteenth  ann.   rep.   U.    S.   Geological   Survey,   pt.   IV,   561-615. 

Washington,    1897. 
W.  H.  Norton. — Artesian  wells  of  Iowa.      Rep.  Iowa  Geol.  Survey,  VI,   113-428.    Des 

Moines,    1897. 
T.  C.  Chamberlain. — The  requisite  and  qualifying  conditions  of  artesian  wells.       Fifth 

ann.    rep.    U.    S.    Geological    Survey,    1883-84,    pp.    125-173.       Washington,    1885. 
R.   T.   Hill. — On  the  occurrence  of  artesian   and  other   underground  waters   in   Texas, 

eastern  New  Mexico,  and  Indian  Territory,   west  of  the  97th  meridian.       Senate 

Ex.  document  41,  48-166. 

7G.  O.  Smith. — The  artesian  waters  in  crystalline  rocks.  Science,  New  Series  XXI, 
224-225.  New  York,  1905. 

•W.  C.  Mendenhall. — Preliminary  report  on  the  ground  waters  of  San  Joaquin  Val- 
ley, California.  Water  supply  paper  no.  222.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 
Washington,  1908. 


483 


484 


WATER. 


Fig.    125. — Section  showing  how  a  horizontal  well  may   obtain  water   from 
vertical    beds. 

Size  and  strength  of  the  flow  of  artesian  wells  depends  upon:8 

1.  Distance  of  discharge  from  outcrop. 

2.  Porosity  of  the  water-bearing  beds. 

3.  Character  of  the  confining  beds. 

4.  Character    of    the    country    between    the    outcrop    of    the    water- 

bearing bed  and  the  well. 

5.  Height  of  the  outcrop  of  the  water  bed  above  the  mouth  of  the 

well. 

Artesian   water   important    for : 
City  water  supplies. 
Domestic  purposes. 
Irrigation. 

Limits  of  artesian  water  for  irrigation. 
Medicinal  purposes. 
Examples  of  artesian  well  regions. 
Impossibility  of  locating  water  and  minerals  by  the  use  of  the  divining 

rod.10 
Protection  of  water  sources. 


*M.    L.    Fuller. — Summary    of   the    controlling    factors    of    artesian    flows.       Bui.    319, 

U.   S.  Geological  Survey.      Washington,   1908. 
King    and    Slichter. — (On    the    flow    of    water    from    artesian    wells.)        19th    an.    rep. 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  pt.  II,  59-384.      Washington,  1899. 
>0M.  E.  Wadsworth. — The  mechanical  action  of  the  divining  rod.      American  Geologist, 

XXI,   72.       Minneapolis,    1898. 

The  divining  rod.      Nature,  LVI,   568-569.       London,    1897. 
C.    V.    Boys. — (The    theory    of    water-finding   by   the    divining    rod.)       Nature,    LXI, 

1-4.      London,   1899. 
R.   W.   Raymond.— The   divining   rod.       Trans.   Amer.   Inst.   Min.    Eng.,   XI,   411-446. 

New  York,  1883. 


485 


486 


4-8' 


488 


489 


490 


491 


492 


493 


494 


495 


496 


497 


498 


499 


INDEX 


Abrasives,    388. 

Accretion,   44. 

Agate,   466. 

Agriculture  and   geology,   2. 

Albertite,    360. 

Alkali,   474. 

Alloys,    138. 

Alluvial    soils,   472. 

Alteration  of  ores,  58. 

Alum,    434. 

Aluminum,   220. 

Amethyst,  464,  466. 

Anthracite,   258. 

Anticlinal   theory,   280. 

Antimony,  244,  356. 

Apatite,   448. 

Aqua-marine,   466. 

Arsenic,   254,    356. 

Art    and    geology,   4. 

Artesian    waters,   482. 

Asbestos,  376. 

Asptialt,   360. 

Augite,   318. 

Auriferous    gravels,    86,    110,    112. 

Barium,   356. 
Barytes,   420. 
Bauxite,  220,  434. 
Bedded  deposits,  36. 
Beryl,  466. 
Bismuth,    250. 
Bitumen,  360. 
Black  lead,  428. 
Bonanzas,    56. 
Borax,  408. 
Brecciation,  44. 
Bricks,  344,  372,  374. 


Briquettes,    272. 
Building   stones,   310. 

Cadmium,   252,   356. 
Cairngorm,  466. 
Calcium,  356. 
Cameos,    466. 
Carbonado,  456,  460. 
Carborundum,    398. 
Carnelian,  466. 
Cat's-eye,   466. 
Cavities,   rock,  24. 
Cement,    hydraulic,    332. 
Cement,    Portland,   334,   336. 
Cerium,  436. 
Chalcedony,   466. 
Chalk,  334. 
Chrome   iron,   382. 
Chromium,  206,  356. 
Chrysotile,  376. 
Clay,  344. 
Coal,  256. 
Cobalt,   200,   356. 
Colemanite,  408. 
Concentration,  46. 
Conglomerates,  318. 
Contact  deposits,  44,  46. 
Copper,    138,   356. 
Corundum,  388,  464. 
Cryolite,   220. 
Culm,  270. 

Depth   of  mines,   130. 
Diamonds,  456. 
Diamond  dust,  388. 
Diatomaceous    earth,    392. 
Didvmium,  436. 


501 


Divining  rod,  484. 
Dolomite,  328. 
Dredging,  86,  112. 

Electrolytic   process,    150. 
Emerald,  464,  466.      - 
Emery,  388. 
Enrichment   of   veins,   46. 

Faults,  28,  52. 

Features   of  ore   deposits,   50. 

Feldspar,    354. 

Fertilizers,    422,    424,    448. 

Fire-clay,  372. 

Fluorite,  444. 

Fluorspar,    444. 

Forests   and    geology,   2. 

Fractures,   28. 

Fullers'  earth,  348. 

Galvanizing,    154. 
Garnet,   390,  466. 
Gas,   natural,    304. 
Gems,  456. 

Geological   column,   viii. 
Geological    surveys,    12. 

Federal  government,  14. 

private,  16. 

state,  14. 

German  silver,  200. 
Gilsonite,    360. 
Glacial    soils,   474. 
Glacio-alluvial    soils,    474. 
Glass-sands,   350. 
Glauconite  marls,  454. 
Gneiss,  318. 
Gold,   84. 
Gossan,   58. 

Government    surveys,     14. 
Grahamite,   360. 
Granite,    312. 
Graphite,    356,   380,   428. 
Graphite  paint,  428. 
Greensand   marls,   454. 


Grindstones,   396. 

Guano,  452. 

Gypsum,  336,  356,  454. 

Hardness    scale,   456. 
Hydraulic   cement,  332. 
Hydraulic    limestone,    328,    332. 
Hydraulic    mining,    112. 

Indicolite,    466. 
Infusorial   earth,   392. 
Iridium.  216. 
Iron,    60,    358. 
Iron  pyrites,  ^-40. 

Jade,  466. 
Jasper,  466. 

Kaolin,  342. 
Kryolite,   220. 

Landscape    geology,    4. 
Land   plaster,   336,   454. 
Lanthanum,   436. 
Laws,   mining,   vii. 
Lead,    168,   358. 
Lignite,  256. 
Lime,   330,   382. 
Limestones,  314,  320. 

Hydraulic,  328,  332. 

Lithographic,  330. 

Oolitic,  328. 

Other  than  marbles,  326 
Long-wall    mining,   270. 

Magnesite,   374. 
Magnesium,  358. 
Magnetic   separation,   62. 
Manganese,    196,   358. 
Manufacturing   industries   and 

geology,  2. 

Maps    and    sections,    6. 
Marls,  334. 
Marble,   320. 


502 


Mercury,    224. 
Metasomatism,    42. 
Mica,   382. 
Millstones,  398. 
Mineral  phosphates,  448. 

pigments,  356. 

statistics,  titles,  iv. 
Mining    laws,    vii. 
Molybdenum,    240. 
Monazite,    436. 
Moonstone,    354. 

Naphtha,  276. 
Natural   fertilizers,  448. 
Natural  gas,  278,  304. 
Natural    soda,   414. 
Nickel,   200. 
Niter,    424. 
Novaculite,    394. 

Ochre,   60. 

Oil,  276. 

Oil   shale,  278. 

Oilstone,   394. 

Onyx,    466. 

Onyx    marble,    320. 

Oolitic   limestone,   328. 

Opal,  416. 

Ore-bodies,   formation  of,   36. 

Ore   deposits,   features,   50. 

Ores,   distribution   in   veins,    56. 

"      superficial  alteration,  58. 
Oriental  cat's-eyes,  466. 
Osmium,  216. 
Ozokerite,    426. 

Paint,    356. 
Palladium,   218. 
Paraffine,  276. 
Parallelism  of  veins,  52. 
Paving  bricks,  344,  372,  374. 
Pearls,  468. 
Peat,   256. 
Periodicals,  vi. 


Petroleum,    276. 

Petroleum  shale,  278. 

Phosphates,   448. 

Phosphorite,   448. 

Pig  iron,   82. 

Pigments,  356. 

Placers,    86. 

Plaster,  336,  454. 

Platinum,   212. 

Plumbago,   428. 

Porosity,  278. 

Portland   cement,   334,  336. 

Potassium,    358. 

Precious   stones,  456. 

Pressure,  rock,  280. 

Priceite,   410. 

Publications,    periodical,    vi. 

Pumice,    3°0. 

Pyrite,   440. 

Pyrope,  466. 

Quartz,    466. 
Quicksilver,   224. 

Railways   and   geology,   4. 
Refractoriness,    374. 
Refractory    materials,    372. 
Relief   maps,   8. 
Replacement,   42. 
Residuary    soils,   472. 
Road  materials,  4,  368. 
Roads  and  geology,  4. 
Rock  cavities,  24. 
Rock  phosphates,  448. 
Rock   pressure,   280. 
Rubellite,   466. 
Ruby,  456,  464. 

Saddle    reefs,   94. 
Salt,    400. 
Saltpeter,    424. 
Sand,   390. 
Sandstones,   314. 
Sapphire,   464. 


INDEX. 


503 


Schists,    318. 

Tin,   178,  358. 

Sections  and  maps,  6. 

Topaz,  464. 

Serpentine,   318. 

Tourmaline,  466. 

Shale,   278. 

Tripoli,   392. 

Silica,  382. 

Tuff,  318. 

Silver,  120. 

Tungsten,  234. 

Slate,  318. 

Turquoise,  464. 

Soda,  414. 

Type  metal,  244. 

Soda  niter,  422. 

Soils,  472. 

Uintaite,  360. 

Springs,  476. 

Ultramarine,  358. 

Stadia,   6. 

Underground  water,  476. 

Statistics,    mineral,    iv. 

Stones,  building,  310. 

Vanadium,    358. 

Stones,  precious,  456. 

Veins,  38. 

Sulphur,   416. 

enrichment,  46. 

Surveys,   geological,    12. 

Verde  antique,  318. 

Federal  government,  \L 
private,    16. 

Waste  of  coal,  270. 

"         state,  14. 

Water,  476. 

Syenite,   318. 

Wells,  artesian,  482. 

Whetstones,    394. 

T    1        'Jon 

Whiting,  358. 

1  a  Ic,    ool). 
Talus  soils,  472. 

Wolframite    (see  tungsten),  234. 

Thoria,  436. 

Zinc,   154,  358. 

000746603     o 


